Methods and compositions for genomic modification

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides methods of site-specifically integrating a polynucleotide sequence of interest in a genome of a eucaryotic cell, as well as, enzymes, polypeptides, and a variety of vector constructs useful therefore. In the method, a targeting construct comprises, for example, (i) a first recombination site and a polynucleotide sequence of interest, and (ii) a site-specific recombinase, which are introduced into the cell. The genome of the cell comprises a second recombination site. Recombination between the first and second recombination sites is facilitated by the site-specific recombinase. The invention describes compositions, vectors, and methods of use thereof, for the generation of transgenic cells, tissues, plants, and animals. The compositions, vectors, and methods of the present invention are also useful in gene therapy techniques.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is related to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser.No. 60/097,166, filed Aug. 19, 1998, from which priority is claimedunder 35 U.S.C. §119(e)(1), and which application is incorporated hereinby reference in its entirety. This application is a continuation of U.S.patent application Ser. No. 09/377,885, now issued as U.S. Pat. No.6,632,672, filed Aug. 19, 1999, from which priority is claimed under 35U.S.C. §120, and which application is incorporated herein by referencein its entirety. This application is also a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/636,290, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,361,641,filed Aug. 5, 2003, from which priority is claimed under 35 U.S.C. §120,and which application is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety.

FEDERALLY-SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with Government support under contracts DK051834and DK055569 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. TheGovernment has certain rights in this invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the field of biotechnology, and morespecifically to the field of genomic modification. Disclosed herein arecompositions, vectors, and methods of use thereof, for the generation oftransgenic cells, tissues, plants, and animals. The compositions,vectors, and methods of the present invention are also useful in genetherapy techniques.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Permanent genomic modification has been a long sought after goal sincethe discovery that many human disorders are the result of geneticmutations that could, in theory, be corrected by providing the patientwith a non-mutated gene. Permanent alterations of the genomes of cellsand tissues would also be valuable for research applications, commercialproducts, protein production, and medical applications. Furthermore,genomic modification in the form of transgenic animals and plants hasbecome an important approach for the analysis of gene function, thedevelopment of disease models, and the design of economically importantanimals and crops.

A major problem with many genomic modification methods associated withgene therapy is their lack of permanence. Life-long expression of theintroduced gene is required for correction of genetic diseases. Indeed,sustained gene expression is required in most applications, yet currentmethods often rely on vectors that provide only a limited duration ofgene expression. For example, gene expression is often curtailed byshut-off of integrated retroviruses, destruction of adenovirus-infectedcells by the immune system, and degradation of introduced plasmid DNA(Anderson, W F, Nature 329:25-30, 1998; Kay, et al, Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA 94:12744-12746, 1997; Verma and Somia, Nature 389:239-242,1997). Even in shorter-term applications, such as therapy designed tokill tumor cells or discourage regrowth of endothelial tissue afterrestenosis surgery, the short lifetime of gene expression of currentmethods often limits the usefulness of the technique.

One method for creating permanent genomic modification is to employ astrategy whereby the introduced DNA becomes part of (i.e., integratedinto) the existing chromosomes. Of existing methods, only retrovirusesprovide for efficient integration. Retroviral integration is random,however, thus the added gene sequences can integrate in the middle ofanother gene, or into a region in which the added gene sequence isinactive. In addition, a different insertion is created in each targetcell. This situation creates safety concerns and produces an undesirableloss of control over the procedure.

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) often integrates at a specific region inthe human genome. However, vectors derived from AAV do not integratesite-specifically due to deletion of the toxic rep gene (Flotte andCarter, Gene Therapy 2:357-362, 1995; Muzyczk, Curr. Topics Microbiol.Immunol. 158:97-129, 1992). The small percentage of the AAV vectorpopulation that eventually integrates does so randomly. Other methodsfor genomic modification include transfection of DNA using calciumphosphate co-precipitation, electroporation, lipofection,microinjection, protoplast fusion, particle bombardment, or the Tiplasmid (for plants). All of these methods produce random integration atlow frequency. Homologous recombination produces site-specificintegration, but the frequency of such integration is very low.

Another method that has been considered for the integration ofheterologous nucleic acid fragments into a chromosome is the use of asite-specific recombinase (an example using Cre is described below).Site-specific recombinases catalyze the insertion or excision of nucleicacid fragments. These enzymes recognize relatively short, unique nucleicacid sequences that serve for both recognition and recombination.Examples include Cre (Sternberg and Hamilton, J Mol Biol 150:467-486,1981), Flp (Broach, et al, cell-29:227-234, 1982) and R (Matsuzaki, etal, J Bacteriology 172:610-618, 1990).

One of the most widely studied site-specific recombinases is the enzymeCre from the bacteriophage P1. Cre recombines DNA at a 34 basepairsequence called loxP, which consists of two thirteen basepairpalindromic sequences flanking an eight basepair core sequence. Cre candirect site-specific integration of a loxP-containing targeting vectorto a chromosomally placed loxP target in both yeast and mammalian cells(Sauer and Henderson, New Biol 2:441-449, 1990). Use of this strategyfor genomic modification, however, requires that a chromosome first bemodified to contain a loxP site (because this sequence is not known tooccur naturally in any organism but P1 bacteriophage), a procedure whichsuffers from low frequency and unpredictability as discussed above.Furthermore, the net integration frequency is low due to the competingexcision reaction also mediated by Cre. Similar concerns arise in theconventional use of other, well-known, site-specific recombinases.

A need still exists, therefore, for a convenient means by whichchromosomes can be permanently modified in a site-specific manner. Thepresent invention addresses that need.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Accordingly, in one embodiment, the present invention is directed to amethod of site-specifically integrating a polynucleotide sequence ofinterest in a genome of a eucaryotic cell. The method comprisesintroducing (i) a circular targeting constructs comprising a firstrecombination site and the polynucleotide sequence of interest, and (ii)a site-specific recombinase into the eucaryotic cell, wherein the genomeof the cell comprises a second recombination site native to the genomeand recombination between the first and second recombination sites isfacilitated by the site-specific recombinase. The cell is maintainedunder conditions that allow recombination between the first and secondrecombination sites and the recombination is mediated by thesite-specific recombinase. The result of the recombination issite-specific integration of the polynucleotide sequence of interest inthe genome of the eucaryotic cell.

The recombinase may be introduced into the cell before, concurrentlywith, or after introducing the circular targeting construct. Further,the circular targeting construct may comprise other useful components,such as a bacterial origin of replication and/or a selectable marker.

In certain embodiments, the recombinase may facilitate recombinationbetween two sites designated recombinase-mediated-recombination sites(RMRS) and the RMRS comprises a first DNA sequence (RMRS5′), a coreregion A, and a second DNA sequence (RMRS3′) in the relative orderRMRS5′-core region A-RMRS3′. In this embodiment, for example, RMRS maybe a loxP site or a FRT site and the recombinase may be Cre and FLP,respectively.

In additional embodiments, (i) the second recombination site is apseudo-RMRS site, and the second recombination site comprises a firstDNA sequence (attT5′), a core region B, and a second DNA sequence(attT3′) in the relative order attT5′-core region B-attT3′, and (ii) thefirst recombination site is a hybrid-recombination site comprisingRMRS5′-core region B-RMRS3′ or attT5′-core region B-attT3′.

In yet further embodiments, the site-specific recombinase is arecombinase encoded by a phage selected from the group consisting ofφC31, TP901-1, and R4. The recombinase may facilitate recombinationbetween a bacterial genomic recombination site (attB) and a phagegenomic recombination site (attP), and (i) the second recombination sitemay comprise a pseudo-attP site, and (ii) the first recombination sitemay comprise the attB site or (i) the second recombination site maycomprise a pseudo-attB site, and (ii) the first recombination site maycomprise the attP site.

In another embodiment, (i) attB comprises a first DNA sequence (attB5′),a bacterial core region, and a second DNA sequence (attB3′) in therelative order attB5′-bacterial core region-attB3′, (ii) attP comprisesa first DNA sequence (attP5′), a phage core region, and a second DNAsequence (attP3′) in the relative order attP5′-phage core region-attP3′,and (iii) wherein the recombinase meditates production ofrecombination-product sites that can no longer act as a substrate forthe recombinase, the recombination-product sites comprising the relativeorder attB5′-recombination-product site-attP3′ andattP5′-recombination-product site-attB3′.

In particularly preferred embodiments, (i) the second recombination siteis a pseudo-attP site, the second recombination site comprises a firstDNA sequence (attT5′), a core region B, and a second DNA sequence(attT3′) in the relative order attT5′-core region B-attT3′, (ii) thefirst recombination site is an attB site comprising attB5′-bacterialcore region-attB3′, and (iii) wherein the recombinase meditatesproduction of recombination-product sites that can no longer act as asubstrate for the recombinase, the recombination-product sitescomprising the relative order attT5′-recombination-product site-attB3′{polynucleotide of interest}attB5′-recombination-product site-attT3′.Alternatively, (i) the second recombination site is a pseudo-attB site,and the second recombination site comprises a first DNA sequence(attT5′), a core region B, and a second DNA sequence (attT3′) in therelative order attT5′-core region B-attT3′, (ii) the first recombinationsite is an attP site comprising attP5′-bacterial core region-attP3′, and(iii) wherein the recombinase meditates production ofrecombination-product sites that can no longer act as a substrate forthe recombinase, the recombination-product sites comprising the relativeorder attT5′-recombination-product site-attP3′ {polynucleotide ofinterest}attP5′-recombination-product site-attT 3′.

In yet further embodiments, the site-specific recombinase is introducedinto the cell as a polypeptide. In alternative embodiments, thesite-specific recombinase in introduced into the cell as apolynucleotide encoding the recombinase and an expression cassette,optionally carried on a transient expression vector, comprises thepolynucleotide encoding the recombinase.

In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a vector forsite-specific integration of a polynucleotide sequence into the genomeof a eucaryotic cell. The vector comprises (i) a circular backbonevector, (ii) a polynucleotide of interest operably linked to aeucaryotic promoter, and (iii) a first recombination site, wherein thegenome of the cell comprises a second recombination site native to thegenome and recombination between the first and second recombinationsites is facilitated by a site-specific recombinase.

In certain embodiments, the recombinase normally facilitatesrecombination between a bacterial genomic recombination site (attB) anda phage genomic recombination site (attP) and the first recombinationsite may be either attB or attP.

In still another embodiment, the invention is directed to a kit forsite-specific integration of a polynucleotide sequence into the genomeof a eucaryotic cell The kit comprises, (i) a vector as described aboveand (ii) a site-specific recombinase.

In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a eucaryotic cellhaving a modified genome. The modified genome comprises an integratedpolynucleotide sequence of interest whose integration was mediated by arecombinase and wherein the integration was into a recombination sitenative to the eucaryotic cell genome and the integration created arecombination-product site comprising the polynucleotide sequence.

In certain embodiments, the recombination-site product comprises thecomponents attT5′-recombination-product site-attB3′ andattB5′-recombination-product site-attT3′, wherein (i) the nativerecombination site is a pseudo-attP site, and the native recombinationsite comprises a first DNA sequence (attT5′), a core region B, and asecond DNA sequence (attT3′) in the relative order attT5′-core regionB-attT3′, (ii) the integrated polynucleotide sequence comprises a firstrecombination site comprising an attB site comprising attB5′-bacterialcore region-attB3′, and (iii) wherein the recombinase meditatesproduction of recombination-product sites that can no longer act as asubstrate for the recombinase, the recombination-product sitescomprising the relative order attT5′-recombination-product site-attB3′{polynucleotide of interest}attB5′-recombination-product site-attT3′.Alternatively, the recombination-site product comprises the componentsattT5′-recombination-product site-attB3′ andattB5′-recombination-product site-attT3′, wherein (i) the nativerecombination site is a pseudo-attB site, and the native recombinationsite comprises a first DNA sequence (attT5′), a core region B, and asecond DNA sequence (attT3′) in the relative order attT5′-core regionB-attT3′, (ii) the integrated polynucleotide sequence comprises a firstrecombination site comprising an attP site comprising attP5′-phage coreregion-attP3′, and (iii) wherein the recombinase meditates production ofrecombination-product sites that can no longer act as a substrate forthe recombinase, the recombination-product sites comprising the relativeorder attT5′-recombination-product site-attP3′{polynucleotide ofinterest}attP5′-recombination-product site-attT3′.

In further embodiments, the subject invention is directed to transgenicplants and animals comprising at least one cell as described above, aswell as methods of producing the same.

In yet other embodiments, the invention is directed to methods oftreating a disorder in a subject in need of such treatment. The methodcomprises site-specifically integrating a polynucleotide sequence ofinterest in a genome of at least one cell of the subject, wherein thepolynucleotide facilitates production of a product that treats thedisorder in the subject. The site-specific integration may be carriedout in vivo in the subject, or ex vivo in cells and the cells are thenintroduced into the subject.

A further embodiment of the invention comprises cells, tissues,transgenic animals and/or plants whose genomes have been modified usingthe methods described herein.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method of modifyinga genome of a cell. In the method, an attB or an attP recombination siteis into the genome of a cell, wherein (i) the recombination site isrecognized by a recombinase, and (ii) the cell normally does notcomprise the attB or attP site. The vectors described herein and aboveare useful in the practice of this aspect of the invention. In apreferred embodiment, the cell that is being modified is a eucaryoticcell.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides expressioncassettes, comprising a polynucleotide encoding a site-specificrecombinase, wherein (i) the recombinase is encoded by a phage(typically selected from the group consisting of φC31, TP901-1, and R4)and the recombinase is operably linked to a eucaryotic promoter. Thevectors described herein and above are useful in the practice of thisaspect of the invention.

These and other embodiments of the present invention will readily occurto those of ordinary skill in the art in view of the disclosure herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1A through 1C are schematics of representative plasmids useful inevaluating the efficiency of pseudo-lox recombination sequences. FIG. 1Ashows an unmodified plasmid containing a gene for ampicillin resistanceand a gene for β-galactosidase expression (lacz) under control of theCMV promoter (pLCG1). FIG. 1B shows the same plasmid with wild-type loxPsequences flanking the lacZ gene (pWTLox²). FIG. 1C shows the plasmidwith the ψlox h7q21 pseudo-lox recombination sequence on one side oflacz and a lox sequence with wild-type palindromes and a pseudo-lox coreon the other side (pψloxh7q21).

FIG. 1D shows the DNA sequences of the lox sites from pWTLox² (top lineof FIG. 1D) and plasmid pψloxh7q21 (bottom lines of FIG. 1D).

FIG. 2 shows the results of an excision assay performed in human cellsas described in the examples. Each of the tested plasmids wastransfected into human 293 cells along with a Cre expression plasmid.After 72 hours, DNA was transformed into E. coli and recombinantsscored. The transient excision frequency is expressed as a percentage,where the value for pWTLox² is set at 100%.

FIG. 3 is a diagram of plasmids used in a transient integration assayperformed in human cells as described in the examples. pRh7q21 (upperleft) was the recipient for an integration event and included thechromosomal ψlox h7q21 site (open triangle), as well as the gene fortetracycline resistance. Similar control plasmids bearing either no loxsite or the wild-type loxP site were also constructed. pDh7q21 (upperright) was the donor plasmid for integration and included a lox site(open triangle, loxψcore) comprising the 8-bp core from ψlox h7q21 andthe wild-type loxP palindromes. The plasmid also carried two wild-typeloxP sites (dark triangles). In the presence of Cre, the plasmid originof replication and the ampicillin resistance gene are excised, resultingin integrants that do not have two plasmid origins. This excisedby-product is shown in the lower right. The site-specific integrationproduct, bearing lacZ flanked by hybrid lox sites (shaded triangles) ina tetracycline resistant backbone, is shown at lower left. Paralleldonor plasmids having, in place of ψlox h7q21, either no lox site oronly wild-type loxP sites, were also constructed.

FIGS. 4A through 4E are schematic diagrams of representative plasmidsused in demonstrating function of the φC31 integrase, as described inthe examples. FIG. 4A shows plasmid plnt, for expression of φC31integrase in E. coli; FIG. 4B depicts plasmid pCMVInt for expression ofintegrase in mammalian cells; FIG. 4C depicts plasmid pBCPB+, anintramolecular integration assay vector; FIG. 4D shows plasmidp220KattBfull, an EBV vector bearing attB, the target for integrationevents; FIG. 4E shows plasmid pTSAD, the donor for integration events,bearing attP. Kan^(R), Amp^(R), Chlor^(R) and Hyg^(R) are genes forresistance to kanamycin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and hygromycin,respectively.

FIG. 5 shows along the vertical axis the percent recombination obtainedin the intramolecular integration assay in E. coli, described in Example6, when various shortened versions of φC31 attB (left) and attP (right)were tested. The name of each site tested corresponds to the length ofthe att site in basepairs. The A and B of B33 indicate sites where thereduction of the site length from 34-bp to 33-bp occurred at the left orright ends of the site, respectively. Similar nomenclature is used forP39A and P39B. Full refers to the full length attB.

FIG. 6 shows the percent recombination obtained in the intramolecularintegration assay performed in E. coli when various substitutions in theattB and/or attP cores were made. The first column shows therecombination frequency when attB bears the mutant sequence shown andattP remains wild-type, the second column shows the recombinationfrequency when attD bears the mutant sequence, while the third columnshows the recombination frequency when both attB and attP bear themutant core sequence shown. nd=not done. As the figure indicates, mostchanges in the core region are not well tolerated.

FIG. 7 shows the results of a bimolecular integration assay performed inhuman cells as described in the examples. Results are shown for humancells carrying three EBV plasmids, p220K, a negative control lackingattB; p220KattB35, which carries the minimally sized attB; andp220KattBfull, carrying the full-sized attB. Integration frequencies areshown for experiments when no DNA was transfected, when either theintegrase expression plasmid pCMVInt or the attP-bearing plasmid pTSADalone was transfected, or when both pCMVInt and pTSAD together weretransfected. Only the latter conditions, in the presence of a plasmidbearing attB, lead to integration events. Integration frequencies werecorrected for transfection frequency to give the accurate correctedintegration frequencies in the last column. p220KattBfull produced thehighest integration frequency at 7.5%.

FIGS. 8A through 8B show pseudo-loxP sequences identified by computersearch, as described in the Examples. The core sequences are shown inboldface type.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Throughout this application, various publications, patents, andpublished patent applications are referred to by an identifyingcitation. The disclosures of these publications, patents, and publishedpatent specifications referenced in this application are herebyincorporated by reference into the present disclosure to more fullydescribe the state of the art to which this invention pertains.

The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwiseindicated, conventional techniques of molecular biology, microbiology,cell biology and recombinant DNA, which are within the skill of the art.See, e.g., Sambrook, Fritsch, and Maniatis, MOLECULAR CLONING: ALABORATORY MANUAL, 2nd edition (1989); CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN MOLECULARBIOLOGY, (F. M. Ausubel et al. eds., 1987); the series METHODS INENZYMOLOGY (Academic Press, Inc.); PCR 2: A PRACTICAL APPROACH (M. J,McPherson, B. D. Hames and G. R. Taylor eds., 1995) and ANIMAL CELLCULTURE (R. I. Freshney. Ed., 1987).

All publications, patents and patent applications cited herein, whethersupra or infra, are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singularforms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural references unless the contentclearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “an antigen”includes a mixture of two or more such agents.

Definitions

“Recombinase” as used herein refers to a group of enzymes that canfacilitate site specific recombination between defined sites, where thesites are physically separated on a single DNA molecule or where thesites reside on separate DNA molecules. The DNA sequences of the definedrecombination sites are not necessarily identical. Within this group areseveral subfamilies including “Integrase” (including, for example, Creand λ integrase) and “Resolvase/Invertase” (including, for example, φC31integrase, R4 integrase, and TP-901 integrase).

By “wild-type recombination site (RS/WT)” is meant a recombination sitenormally used by an integrase or recombinase. For example, λ is atemperate bacteriophage that infects E. coli. The phage has oneattachment site for recombination (attP) and the E. coli bacterialgenome has an attachment site for recombination (attB). Both of thesesites are wild-type recombination sites for λ integrase. In the contextof the present invention, wild-type recombination sites occur in thehomologous phage/bacteria system. Accordingly, wild-type recombinationsites can be derived from the homologous system and associated withheterologous sequences, for example, the Att_(B) site can be placed inother systems to act as a substrate for the integrase.

By “pseudo-recombination site (RS/P)” is meant a site at whichrecombinase can facilitate recombination even though the site may nothave a sequence identical to the sequence of its wild-type recombinationsite. A pseudo-recombination site is typically found in an organismheterologous to the native phage/bacterial system. For example, a φC31integrase and vector carrying a φC31 wild-type recombination site can beplaced into a eucaryotic cell. The wild-type recombination sequencealigns itself with a sequence in the eucaryotic cell genome and theintegrase facilitates a recombination event. When the sequence from thegenomic site, in the eucaryotic cell, where the integration of thevector took place (via a recombination event between the wild-typerecombination site in the vector and the genome) is examined, thesequence at the genomic site typically has some identity to but may notbe identical with the wild-type bacterial genome recombination site. Therecombination site in the eucaryotic cell is considered to be apseudo-recombination site at least because the eucaryotic cell isheterologous to the normal phage/bacterial cell system. The size of thepseudo-recombination site can be determined through the use of a varietyof methods including, but not limited to, (i) sequence alignmentcomparisons, (ii) secondary structural comparisons, (iii) deletion orpoint mutation analysis to find the functional limits of thepseudo-recombination site, and (iv) combinations of the foregoing.Pseudo-recombination sites typically occur naturally in the genomes ofeucaryotic cells (i.e., the sites are native to the genome) and arefunctionally identified as described herein (e.g., see Examples).

By “hybrid-recombination site (RS/H)” as used herein refers to arecombination site constructed from portions of wild-type and/orpseudo-recombination sites. As an example, a wild-type recombinationsite may have a short, core region flanked by palindromes. In oneembodiment of a “hybrid-recombination site” the short, core regionsequence of the hybrid-recombination site matches a core sequence of apseudo-recombination site and the palindromes of thehybrid-recombination site match the wild-type recombination site. In analternative embodiment, the hybrid-recombination site may be comprisedof flanking sites derived from a pseudo-recombination site and a coreregion derived from a wild-type recombination site. Other combinationsof such hybrid-recombination sites will be evident to those havingordinary skill in the art, in view of the teachings of the presentspecification.

A recombination site “native” to the genome, as used herein, means arecombination site that occurs naturally in the genome of a cell (i.e.,the sites are not introduced into the genome, for example, byrecombinant means.)

By “nucleic acid construct” it is meant a nucleic acid sequence that hasbeen constructed to comprise one or more functional units not foundtogether in nature. Examples include circular, double-stranded,extrachromosomal DNA molecules (plasmids), cosmids (plasmids containingCOS sequences from lambda phage), viral genomes comprising non-nativenucleic acid sequences, and the like.

By “nucleic acid fragment of interest” it is meant any nucleic acidfragment that one wishes to insert into a genome. Suitable examples ofnucleic acid fragments of interest include therapeutic genes, markergenes, control regions, trait-producing fragments, and the like.

“Therapeutic genes” are those nucleic acid sequences which encodemolecules that provide some therapeutic benefit to the host, includingproteins, functional RNAs (antisense, hammerhead ribozymes), and thelike. One well known example is the cystic fibrosis transmembraneconductance regulator (CFTR) gene. The primary physiological defect incystic fibrosis is the failure of electrogenic chloride ion secretionacross the epithelia of many organs, including the lungs. One of themost dangerous aspects of the disorder is the cycle of recurrent airwayinfections which gradually destroy lung function resulting in prematuredeath. Cystic fibrosis is caused by a variety of mutations in the CFTRgene. Since the problems arising in cystic fibrosis result frommutations in a single gene, the possibility exists that the introductionof a normal copy of the gene into the lung epithelia could provide atreatment for the disease, or effect a cure if the gene transfer waspermanent.

Other disorders resulting from mutations in a single gene (known asmonogenic disorders) include alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, chromicgranulomatous disease, familial hypercholesterolemia, Fanconi anemia,Gaucher disease, Hunter syndrome, ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency,purine nucleoside phosphorylase deficiency, severe combinedimmunodeficiency disease (SCID)-ADA, X-linked SCID, hemophilia, and thelike.

Therapeutic benefit in other disorders may also result from the additionof a protein-encoding therapeutic nucleic acid. For example, addition ofa nucleic acid encoding an immunomodulating protein such asinterleukin-2 may be of therapeutic benefit for patients suffering fromdifferent types of cancer.

A nucleic acid fragment of interest may additionally be a “markernucleic acid” or “marker polypeptide”. Marker genes encode proteinswhich can be easily detected in transformed cells and are, therefore,useful in the study of those cells Marker genes are being used in bonemarrow transplantation studies, for example, to investigate the biologyof marrow reconstitution and the mechanism of relapse in patients.Examples of suitable marker genes include beta-galactosidase, green oryellow fluorescent proteins, chloramphenicol acetyl transferase,luciferase, and the like.

A nucleic acid fragment of interest may additionally be a controlregion. The term “control region” or “control element” includes allnucleic acid components which are operably linked to a DNA fragment andinvolved in the expression of a protein or RNA therefrom. An operablelinkage is a linkage in which the regulatory DNA fragments and the DNAsought to be expressed are connected in such a way as to permit codingsequence (the nucleic acids encoding the amino acid sequence of aprotein) expression. The precise nature of the regulatory regions neededfor coding sequence expression may vary from organism to organism, butwill in general include a promoter region that, in prokaryotes, containsboth the promoter (which directs the initiation of RNA transcription) aswell as the DNA that, when transcribed into RNA, will signal synthesisinitiation. Such regions will normally include those 5′ noncodingsequences involved with initiation of transcription and translation,such as the enhancer, TATA box, capping sequence, CAAT sequence, and thelike.

Under some circumstances, the native genome sought to be modifiedcontains a functional coding sequence but lacks the ability to controlthe expression of the sequence. In such cases it would be of benefit tomodify the genome by the insertion of control region(s). Such sequencesinclude any sequence that functions to modulate-replication,transcriptional or translational regulation, and the like. Examplesinclude promoters, signal sequences, propeptide sequences, transcriptionterminators, polyadenylation sequences, enhancer sequences, attenuatorysequences, intron splice site sequences, and the like.

A nucleic acid fragment of interest may additionally be atrait-producing sequence, by which it is meant a sequence conferringsome non-native trait upon the organism or cell in which the proteinencoded by the trait-producing sequence is expressed. The term“non-native” when used in the context of a trait-producing sequencemeans that the trait produced is different than one would find in anunmodified organism which can mean that the organism produces highamounts of a natural substance in comparison to an unmodified organism,or produces a non-natural substance. For example, the genome of a cropplant, such as corn, can be modified to produce higher amounts of anessential amino acid, thus creating a plant of higher nutritionalquality, or could be modified to produce proteins not normally producedin plants, such as antibodies. (See U.S. Pat. No. 5,202,422 (issued Apr.13, 1993); U.S. Pat. No. 5,639,947 (Jun. 17, 1997).) Likewise, thegenome of industrially important microorganisms can be modified to makethem more useful such as by inserting new metabolic pathways with theaim of producing novel metabolites or improving both new and existingprocesses such as the production of antibiotics and industrial enzymes.Other useful traits include herbicide resistance, antibiotic resistance,disease resistance, resistance to adverse environmental conditions(e.g., temperature, pH, salt, drought), and the like.

Methods of transforming cells are well known in the art. By“transformed” it is meant a heritable alteration in a cell resultingfrom the uptake of foreign DNA. Suitable methods include viralinfection, transfection, conjugation, protoplast fusion,electroporation, particle gun technology, calcium phosphateprecipitation, direct microinjection, and the like. The choice of methodis generally dependent on the type of cell being transformed and thecircumstances under which the transformation is taking place (i.e. invitro, ex vivo, or in vivo). A general discussion of these methods canbe found in Ausubel et al, Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, 3rded., Wiley & Sons, 1995.

The terms “nucleic acid molecule” and “polynucleotide” are usedinterchangeably and refer to a polymeric form of nucleotides of anylength, either deoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides, or analogsthereof. Polynucleotides may have any three-dimensional structure, andmay perform any function, known or unknown. Non-limiting examples ofpolynucleotides include a gene, a gene fragment, exons, introns,messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, ribozymes, cDNA,recombinant polynucleotides, branched polynucleotides, plasmids,vectors, isolated DNA of any sequence, isolated RNA of any sequence,nucleic acid probes, and primers.

A polynucleotide is typically composed of a specific sequence of fournucleotide bases: adenine (A); cytosine (C); guanine (G); and thymine(T) (uracil (U) for thymine (T) when the polynucleotide is RNA). Thus,the term polynucleotide sequence is the alphabetical representation of apolynucleotide molecule. This alphabetical representation can be inputinto databases in a computer having a central processing unit and usedfor bioinformatics applications such as functional genomics and homologysearching.

A “coding sequence” or a sequence which “encodes” a selectedpolypeptide, is a nucleic acid molecule which is transcribed (in thecase of DNA) and translated (in the case of mRNA) into a polypeptide,for example, in vivo when placed under the control of appropriateregulatory sequences (or “control elements”). The boundaries of thecoding sequence are typically determined by a start codon at the 51(amino) terminus and a translation stop codon at the 31 (carboxy)terminus. A coding sequence can include, but is not limited to, cDNAfrom viral, procaryotic or eucaryotic mRNA, genomic DNA sequences fromviral or procaryotic DNA, and even synthetic DNA sequences. Atranscription termination sequence may be located 3′ to the codingsequence. Other “control elements” may also be associated with a codingsequence. A DNA sequence encoding a polypeptide can be optimized forexpression in a selected cell by using the codons preferred by theselected cell to represent the DNA copy of the desired polypeptidecoding sequence. “Encoded by” refers to a nucleic acid sequence whichcodes for a polypeptide sequence, wherein the polypeptide sequence or aportion thereof contains an amino acid sequence of at least 3 to 5 aminoacids, more preferably at least 8 to 10 amino acids, and even morepreferably at least 15 to 20 amino acids from a polypeptide encoded bythe nucleic acid sequence. Also encompassed are polypeptide sequenceswhich are immunologically identifiable with a polypeptide encoded by thesequence.

“Operably linked” refers to an arrangement of elements wherein thecomponents so described are configured so as to perform their usualfunction. Thus, a given promoter that is operably linked to a codingsequence (e.g., a reporter expression cassette) is capable of effectingthe expression of the coding sequence when the proper enzymes arepresent. The promoter or other control elements need not be contiguouswith the coding sequence, so long as they function to direct theexpression thereof. For example, intervening untranslated yettranscribed sequences can be present between the promoter sequence andthe coding sequence and the promoter sequence can still be considered“operably linked” to the coding sequence.

A “vector” is capable of transferring gene sequences to target cells.Typically, “vector construct,” “expression vector,” and “gene transfervector,” mean any nucleic acid construct capable of directing theexpression of a gene of interest and which can transfer gene sequencesto target cells. Thus, the term includes cloning, and expressionvehicles, as well as integrating vectors.

An “expression cassettes” comprises any nucleic acid construct capableof directing the expression of a gene/coding sequence of interest. Suchcassettes can be constructed into a “vector,” “vector construct,”“expression vector,” or “gene transfer vector,” in order to transfer theexpression cassette into target cells. Thus, the term includes cloningand expression vehicles, as well as viral vectors.

Techniques for determining nucleic acid and amino acid “sequenceidentity” also are known in the art. Typically, such techniques includedetermining the nucleotide sequence of the mRNA for a gene and/ordetermining the amino acid sequence encoded thereby, and comparing thesesequences to a second nucleotide or amino acid sequence. In general,“identity” refers to an exact nucleotide-to-nucleotide or aminoacid-to-amino acid correspondence of two polynucleotides or polypeptidesequences, respectively. Two or more sequences (polynucleotide or aminoacid) can be compared by determining their “percent identity.” Thepercent identity of two sequences, whether nucleic acid or amino acidsequences, is the number of exact matches between two aligned sequencesdivided by the length of the shorter sequences and multiplied by 100. Anapproximate alignment for nucleic acid sequences is provided by thelocal homology algorithm of Smith and Waterman, Advances in AppliedMathematics 2:482-489 (1981). This algorithm can be applied to aminoacid sequences by using the scoring matrix developed by Dayhoff, Atlasof Protein Sequences and Structure, M. O. Dayhoff ed., 5 suppl.3:353-358, National Biomedical Research Foundation, Washington, D.C.,USA, and normalized by Gribskov, Nucl. Acids Res. 14 (6): 6745-6763(1986). An exemplary implementation of this algorithm to determinepercent identity of a sequence is provided by the Genetics ComputerGroup (Madison, WI) in the “BestFit” utility application. The defaultparameters for this method are described in the Wisconsin SequenceAnalysis Package Program Manual, Version 8 (1995) (available fromGenetics-Computer Group, Madison, Wis.). A preferred method ofestablishing percent identity in the context of the present invention isto use the MPSRCH package of programs copyrighted by the University ofEdinburgh, developed by John F. Collins and Shane S. Sturrok, anddistributed by IntelliGenetics, Inc. (Mountain View, Calif). From thissuite of packages the Smith-Waterman algorithm can be employed wheredefault parameters are used for the scoring table (for example, gap openpenalty of 12, gap extension penalty of one, and a gap of six). From thedata generated the “Match” value reflects “sequence identity.” Othersuitable programs for calculating the percent identity or similaritybetween sequences are generally known in the art, for example, anotheralignment program is BLAST, used with default parameters. For example,BLASTN and BLASTP can be used using the following default parameters:genetic code=standard; filter=none; strand=both; cutoff=60; expect=10;Matrix=BLOSUM62; Descriptions=50 sequences; sort by=HIGH SCORE;Databases=nonredundant, GenBank+EMBL+DDBJ+PDB+GenBank CDStranslations+Swiss protein+Spupdate+PIR. Details of these programs canbe found on the world wide web at the following internet address:ncbi.nlrn.gov/cgi-bin/BLAST.

Alternatively, homology can be determined by hybridization ofpolynucleotides under conditions that form stable duplexes betweenhomologous regions, followed by digestion with single-stranded-specificnuclease(s), and size determination of the digested fragments. Two DNA,or two polypeptide sequences are “substantially homologous” to eachother when the sequences exhibit at least about 80%-85%, preferably atleast about 85%-90%, more preferably at least about 90%-95%, and mostpreferably at least about 95%-98% sequence identity over a definedlength of the molecules, as determined using the methods above. As usedherein, substantially homologous also refers to sequences showingcomplete identity to the specified DNA or polypeptide sequence. DNAsequences that are substantially homologous can be identified in aSouthern hybridization experiment under, for example, stringentconditions, as defined for that particular system. Defining appropriatehybridization conditions is within the skill of the art. See, e.g.,Sambrook et al., supra; DNA Cloning, supra; Nucleic Acid Hybridization,supra.

Two nucleic acid fragments are considered to “selectively hybridize” asdescribed herein. The degree of sequence identity between two nucleicacid molecules affects the efficiency and strength of hybridizationevents between such molecules. A partially identical nucleic acidsequence will at least partially inhibit a completely identical sequencefrom hybridizing to a target molecule. Inhibition of hybridization ofthe completely identical sequence can be assessed using hybridizationassays that are well known in the art (e.g., Southern blot, Northernblot, solution hybridization, or the like, see Sambrook, et al.,Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition, (1989) coldSpring Harbor, N.Y.). Such assays can be conducted using varying degreesof selectivity, for example, using conditions varying from low to highstringency. If conditions of low stringency are employed, the absence ofnon-specific binding can be assessed using a secondary probe that lackseven a partial degree of sequence identity (for example, a probe havingless than about 30% sequence identity with the target molecule), suchthat, in the absence of non-specific binding events, the secondary probewill not hybridize to the target.

When utilizing a hybridization-based detection system, a nucleic acidprobe is chosen that is complementary to a target nucleic acid sequence,and then by selection of appropriate conditions the probe and the targetsequence “selectively hybridize,” or bind, to each other to form ahybrid molecule. A nucleic acid molecule that is capable of hybridizingselectively to a target sequence under “moderately stringent” typicallyhybridizes under conditions that allow detection of a target nucleicacid sequence of at least about 10-14 nucleotides in length having atleast approximately 70% sequence identity with the sequence of theselected nucleic acid probe. Stringent hybridization conditionstypically allow detection of target nucleic acid sequences of at leastabout 10-14 nucleotides in length having a sequence identity of greaterthan about 90-95% with the sequence of the selected nucleic acid probe.Hybridization conditions useful for probe/target hybridization where theprobe and target have a specific degree of sequence identity, can bedetermined as is known in the art (see, for example, Nucleic AcidHybridization: A Practical Approach, editors B. D. Hames and S. J.Higgins, (1985) oxford; Washington, D.C.; IRL Press).

With respect to stringency conditions for hybridization, it is wellknown in the art that numerous equivalent conditions can be employed toestablish a particular stringency by varying, for example, the followingfactors: the length and nature of probe and target sequences, basecomposition of the various sequences, concentrations of salts and otherhybridization solution components, the presence or absence of blockingagents in the hybridization solutions (e.g., formamide, dextran sulfate,and polyethylene glycol), hybridization reaction temperature and timeparameters, as well as, varying wash conditions. The selection of aparticular set of hybridization conditions is selected followingstandard methods in the art (see, for example, Sambrook, et al.,Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition, (1989) ColdSpring Harbor, N.Y.)

A first polynucleotide is “derived from” second polynucleotide if it hasthe same or substantially the same basepair sequence as a region of thesecond polynucleotide, its cDNA, complements thereof, or if it displayssequence identity as described above.

A first polypeptide is “derived from” a second polypeptide if it is (i)encoded by a first polynucleotide derived from a second polynucleotide,or (ii) displays sequence identity to the second polypeptides asdescribed above. In the present invention, when a recombinase is“derived from a phage” the recombinase need not be explicitly producedby the phage itself, the phage is simply considered to be the originalsource of the recombinase and coding sequences thereof. Recombinasescan, for example, be produced recombinantly or synthetically, by methodsknown in the art, or alternatively, recombinases may be purified fromphage infected bacterial cultures.

“Substantially purified” general refers to isolation of a substance(compound, polynucleotide, protein, polypeptide, polypeptidecomposition) such that the substance comprises the majority percent ofthe sample in which it resides. Typically in a sample a substantiallypurified component comprises 50%, preferably 80%-85%, more preferably90-95% of the sample. Techniques for purifying polynucleotides andpolypeptides of interest are well-known in the art and include, forexample, ion-exchange chromatography, affinity chromatography andsedimentation according to density.

1.0.0 The Invention

The invention disclosed herein comprises a method of specificallymodifying a genome. In one embodiment of the method, a cell having atarget recombination sequence (designated attT) is transformed with anucleic acid construct (a “targeting construct”) comprising a secondrecombination sequence (designated attD) and one or more polynucleotidesof interest. Into the same cell a recombinase is introduced thatspecifically recognizes the recombination sequences under conditionssuch that the nucleic acid sequence of interest is inserted into thegenome via a recombination event between attT and attD. Alternatively,the recombinase can be introduced into the cell prior to or concurrentwith introduction of the targeting construct transformation with thenucleic acid construct.

The method of the invention is based, in part, on the discovery thatthere exist in various genomes specific nucleic acid sequences, hereincalled pseudo-recombination sequences, that may be distinct fromwild-type recombination sequences and that can be recognized by asite-specific recombinase and used to promote the insertion ofheterologous genes or polynucleotides into the genome. The inventorshave identified such pseudo-recombination sequences in a variety oforganisms, including mammals and plants.

1.1.0 Recombinases

Two major families of site-specific recombinases from bacteria andunicellular yeasts have been described: the integrase family includesCre, Flp, R, and λ integrase (Argos, et al., EMBO J. 5:433-440, 1986)and the resolvase/invertase family includes some phage integrases, suchas, those of phages φC31, R4, and TP-901 (Hallet and Sherratt, FEMSMicrobiol. Rev. 21:157-178, 1997). While not wishing to be bound bydescriptions of mechanisms, strand exchange catalyzed by site specificrecombinases typically occurs in two steps of (1) cleavage and (2)rejoining involving a covalent protein-DNA intermediate formed betweenthe recombinase enzyme and the DNA strand(s).

The nature of the catalytic amino acid residue of the recombinase enzymeand the line of entry of the nucleophile can be different for the tworecombinase families. For cleavage catalyzed by the invertase/resolvasefamily, for example, the nucleophile hydroxyl is derived from a serineand the leaving group is the 3′-OH of the deoxyribose. For the integrasefamily, the catalytic residue is, for example, a tyrosine and theleaving group is the 5′-OH. In both recombinase families, the rejoiningstep is the reverse of the cleavage step. Recombinases particularlyuseful in the practice of the invention are those that function in awide variety of cell types, in part because they do not require any hostspecific factors. Suitable recombinases include Cre, Flp, R, and theintegrases of phages φC31, TP901-1, R4, and the like. Somecharacteristics of the two recombinase families are discussed below.

1.1.1 Cre-like Recombinases

The recombinase activity of Cre has been studied as a model system forthe integrases. Cre is a 38 kD protein isolated from bacteriophage P1.It catalyzes recombination at a 34 basepair stretch of DNA called loxP.The loxP site has the sequence 5′-ATAACTTCGTATA GCATACATTATACGAAGTTAT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 1) consisting of two thirteen basepairpalindromic repeats flanking an eight basepair core sequence. The repeatsequences act as Cre binding sites with the crossover point occurring inthe core. Each repeat appears to bind one protein molecule wherein theDNA substrate (one strand) is cleaved and a protein DNA intermediate isformed having a 3′-phosphotyrosine linkage between Cre and the cleavedDNA strand. Crystallography and other studies suggest that four proteinsand two loxP sites form a synapsed structure in which the DNA resemblesmodels of four-way Holliday-junction intermediates, followed by theexchange of a second set of strands to resolve the intermediate intorecombinant products (see Guo, et al, Nature 389: 40-46, 1997). Theasymmetry of the core region is responsible for directionality of therecombination reaction. If the two recombination sites are repeated inthe same orientation, the outcome of strand exchange is integration orexcision. If the two sites are placed in the opposite orientation, theoutcome is inversion of the sequence between the two sites (Yang andMizuuchi, Structure 5: 1401-1406, 1997).

Cre has been shown to be active in a wide variety of cellularbackgrounds including yeast (Sauer, Mol. Cell. Biol. 7:2087-2096, 1987),plants (Albert, et al, Plant J. 7:649-659, 1995; Dale and Ow, Gene91:79-8S, 1990; Odell, et al, Mol. Gen. Genet. 223:369-378, 1990) andmammals, including both rodent and human cells (van Deursen, et al,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:7376-7380, 1995; Agah, et al, J. Clin.Invest. 100:169-179, 1997; Baubonis, and Sauer, 21:2025-2029, 1993;Sauer and Henderson, New Biologist 2:441-449, 1990). As the loxP site isknown only to occur in the P1 phage genome, use of the enzyme in othercell types requires the prior insertion of a loxP site into the genome,which using currently available technologies is generally alow-frequency and random event with all of the drawbacks inherent insuch a procedure. The loxP site can be targeted to a specific locationby using homologous recombination, but, again, that process occurs at avery low frequency.

Several studies have suggested the possibility that an exact match ofthe loxP sequence is not required for Cre-mediated recombination(Sternberg, et al, J. Mol. Biol. 150:487-507, 1981; Sauer, J. Mol. Biol.223:911-928, 1992; Sauer, Nucleic Acids Research 24:4608-4613, 1996).The efficiency of recombination, however, has generally been three tofour orders of magnitude less efficient than wild-type loxP. Sauerattempted to identify sequences similar to loxP in the human genomewithout success (Sauer, Nucleic Acids Research 24:4608-4613, 1996).

Flp, a recombinase of the integrase family with similar properties toCre has been identified in strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae thatcontain 2μ-circle DNA. Flp recognizes a DNA sequence consisting of twothirteen basepair inverted repeats flanking an eight basepair coresequence (5′- GAAGTTCCTATAC TTCTAGAA GAATAGGAACTTC -3′ (SEQ ID NO: 2))called FRT. A third repeat follows at the 3′ end in the natural sequencebut does not appear to be required for recombinase activity. Like Cre,Flp is functional in a wide variety of systems including bacteria(Huang, et al, J Bacteriology 179: 6076-6083, 1997), insects (Golic andLindquist, Cell 59: 499-509, 1989; Golic and Golic, Genetics 144:1693-1711, 1996), plants (Lyznik, et al, Nucleic Acids Res 21: 969-975,1993) and mammals. These studies have likewise required that a FRTsequence be inserted into the genome to be modified.

A related recombinase, known as R, is encoded by the pSRi plasmid of theyeast Zygosaccharomyces rouxii (Araki, et al., J. Mol. Biol.182:191-203, 1985, herein incorporated by reference). This recombinasemay have properties similar to those described above.

In the context of the present invention, when a recombinase normallyfacilitates recombination between two recombination sites and the sitesare essentially the same (e.g., loxP and Cre), the sites are designatedrecombinase-mediated-recombination sites (RMRS).

1.1.2 Resolvase/Integrase Recombinases

Unlike the Cre/λ integrase family of recombinases, members of theresolvase subfamily of recombinase enzymes typically contain anN-terminal catalytic domain having a high degree (>35%) of sequencehomology among the subfamily members (Crellin and Rood, J Bacteriology179(16):5148-5156, 1997; Christiansen, et al, J. Bacteriology178(17):5164-5S173, 1996). Like some of the Cre-type recombinases,however, some resolvases do not require host specific accessory factors(Thorpe and Smith, PNAS USA 95:5505-5510, 1998).

The process of strand exchange used by the resolvases is somewhatdifferent than the process used by Cre. This process is described but isnot intended to be limiting. The resolvases usually make cuts close tothe center of the crossover site, and the top and bottom strand cuts areoften staggered by 2 basepairs, leaving recessed 51 ends. A protein-DNAlinkage is formed between phosphodiester from the 5′ DNA end and aconserved serine residue close to the amino terminus of the recombinase.As with the Cre-like invertases, two protein units are bound at eachcrossover site, however, no equivalent to the Holiday junctionintermediate is formed (see Stark, et al, Trends in Genetics8(12):432-439, 1992, incorporated by reference herein).

The nucleic acid sequences recognized as recombination sites by a subsetof the resolvase family, including some phage integrases, differ inseveral ways from the recombination site recognized by Cre. The sitesused for recognition and recombination of the phage and bacterial DNAs(the native host system) are generally non-identical, although theytypically have a common core region of nucleic acids. The bacterialsequence is generally called the attB sequence (bacterial attachment)and the phage sequence is called the attP sequence (phage attachment).Because they are different sequences, recombination will result in astretch of nucleic acids (called attL or attR for left and right) thatis neither an attB sequence or an attP sequence, and is probablyfunctionally unrecognizable as a recombination site to the relevantenzyme, thus removing the possibility that the enzyme will catalyze asecond recombination reaction that would reverse the first.

The individual resolvases and the nucleic acid sequences that theyrecognize have been less well characterized than Cre and Flp, althoughmany of the core sequences have been identified. The core sequences ofsome of the resolvases useful in the practice of the invention caninclude, without limitation, the following sequences: φC31-5′-TTG;TP901-1-5′-TCAAT; and R4- 5′-GAAGCAGTGGTA (SEQ ID NO: 3). (See Rauschand Lehmann, NAR 19:5187-5189, 1991; Shirai, et al, J Bacteriology173(13) :4237-4239, 1991; Crellin and Rood, J Bacteriology179:5148-5156, 1997; Christiansen, et al, J. Bacteriology 176:1069-1076,1994; Brondsted and Hammer, Applied & Environmental Microbiology65:752-758, 1999; all of which are incorporated by reference herein.

Several authors have suggested that integrase or resolvase (for example,φC31 integrase) can be used to modify bacterial genomes, such as, thoseof B. coli and actinomycetes (Mascarenhas and Olson, U.S. Pat. No.5,470,727; Cox, et al, U.S. Pat. No. 5,190,871). However, there has beenno suggestion that these enzymes would be useful in the modification ofnon-bacterial genomes.

1.1.3 Recombination Sites

The inventors have discovered native recombination sites existing in thegenomes of a variety of organisms, where the native recombination sitedoes not necessarily have a nucleotide sequence identical to thewild-type recombination sequences (for a given recombinase); but suchnative recombination sites are nonetheless sufficient to promoterecombination meditated by the recombinase. Such recombination sitesequences are referred to herein as “pseudo-recombination sequences.”For a given recombinase, a pseudo-recombination sequence is functionallyequivalent to a wild-type recombination sequence, occurs in an organismother than that in which the recombinase is found in nature, and mayhave sequence variation relative to the wild type recombinationsequences.

In the practice of the present invention, wild-type recombination sites,pseudo-recombination sites, and hybrid-recombination sites can be usedin a variety of ways in the construction of targeting vectors.

Following here are non-limiting examples of how these sites may beemployed in the practice of the present invention.

Identification of pseudo-recombination sequences can be accomplished,for example, by using sequence alignment and analysis, where the querysequence is the recombination site of interest (for example, arecombinase-mediated-recombination site (RMRS; e.g., loxP), or eitherattB and/or attP of a phage/bacterial system). Following here are someexamples: if a genomic recombination site (generally designated attT) isidentified using attB, then that attT site is said to be a pseudo-attBsite; if a genomic recombination site is identified using attP, thenthat attT site is said to be a pseudo-attP site; and, if a genomicrecombination site is identified using an RMRS (e.g., loxP), then thatattT site is said to be a pseudo-RMRS site (e.g., pseudo-loxP).

In one aspect of the present invention, the recombinase (for example,Cre) recognizes a recombination site having the following structure:flanking sequence palindrome—core sequence—flanking sequence palindrome.Such recombination sites typically comprise two approximately 10-20 basepair stretches having some palindromic character which flank anapproximately 3-15 base pair core sequence.

In this aspect of the present invention, the genome of a target cell issearched for sequences having sequence identity to the selectedrecombination site for a given recombinase, for example, loxP (Example1; FIG. 8). The cellular target recombination site (attT: in thisexample, a pseudo-loxP site) accordingly has a defined sequence. Topractice the genome modification method of the present invention, arecombination sequence is placed in the targeting vector. Thisrecombination sequence, attD, can take many forms but must be capable ofparticipating in site specific recombination with the genomic site(attT) where the recombination is mediated by the appropriaterecombinase. In this regard, non-limiting examples of attD sitesinclude, but are not limited to, the following: attD core sequencematches the pseudo-recombination site core sequence, flanking sequencesin the targeting construct are wild-type recombination sequences (thisconstruct represents a hybrid-recombination site); or, attD coresequence matches the pseudo-recombination site core sequence, flankingsequences in the targeting construct match the pseudo-recombination siteflanking sequences. Further, the core sequences between attT and attDare generally essentially the same and the flanking sequences for attDmay be combinations of flanking sequences from wild-type andpseudo-recombination site sources.

The recombinase-mediated-recombination site (RMRS) of this type ofrecombinase, for example, Cre and Cre-like recombinases, can have thefollowing structure: a first DNA sequence (RMRS5′), a core region A, anda second DNA sequence (RMRS3′) in the relative order RMRS5′-core regionA-RMRS3′. Such recombination sites typically comprise two approximately10-20 base pair regions having palindromic characteristics (e.g., RMRS5′and RMRS3′) which flank an approximately 3-15 basepair core sequence(for example, core region A). In one embodiment, e.g., when employingCre, hybrid-recombination sites may be used where the palindromicsequences are derived from a wild-type recombination site and the coresequence is derived from a pseudo-recombination site.

Without being bound to any particular theory or mechanism of action,when such a nucleic acid construct is provided to a cell along with asite-specific recombinase, it is possible that the recombinaserecognizes and binds to the flanking sequences of bothhybrid-recombination sequence and the pseudo-recombination sequence fromwhich the basepair core sequence was derived, and catalyzes therecombination between the two.

In one embodiment the attD (in the targeting construct) is a hybrid-loxsequence comprising two wild-type thirteen basepair loxP palindromesflanking a heterologous core sequence, where the core sequencecorresponds to the core sequence of the pseudo-recombination sequence ofattT (in the cell target). In a second embodiment the attD (in thetargeting construct) is a hybrid-FRT sequence comprising two or threewild-type thirteen basepair palindromes flanking a heterologous coresequence, where the core sequences correspond to the core sequence ofthe pseudo-recombination sequence of attT (in the cell target).

Example 2 describes methods for testing whether a putative recombinationsite is functional as a pseudo-recombination site for recombinationmediated by the selected site specific recombinase and also methods forassessing the efficiency of recombination.

In a second aspect of the present invention, the recombinase (forexample, φC31) recognizes a recombination site where sequence of the 5′region of the recombination site can differ from the sequence of the 3′region of the recombination sequence. For example, for the phage φC31attP (the phage attachment site), the core region is 5′-TTG-3′ theflanking sequences on either side are represented here as attP5′ andattP3′, the structure of the attP recombination site is, accordingly,attP5′-TTG-attP3′. Correspondingly, for the native bacterial genomictarget site (attB) the core region is 5′-TTG-3′, and the flankingsequences on either side are represented here as attB5′ and attB3′, thestructure of the attB recombination site is, accordingly,attB5′-TTG-attB3′. After a single-site, φC31 integrase mediated,recombination event takes place the result is the followingrecombination product: attB5′-TTG-attP3′ {φC31 vectorsequences}attP5′-TTG-attB3′. Typically, after recombination thepost-recombination recombination sites are no longer able to act assubstrate for the φC31 recombinase. This results in stable integrationwith little or no recombinase mediated excision. These structures arerepresented in a more generic way as follows: circular targeting vectorcomprising the recombination site (attD) and a polynucleotide ofinterest—attD5′-core-attD3′; pseudo-recombination site(attT)—attT5′-core-attT3′; post recombinationstructure—attT5′-recombination product site (e.g., core)-attD3′{polynucleotide sequences of interest}attD5′-recombination product site(e.g., core)-attT3′. The recombination product site sequence cancomprise a core identical to the original core sequence. However, thecomplete post-recombination, recombination sites (for example,attT5′-recombination product site (e.g., core)-attD3′) generally nolonger provide a usable substrate for the recombinase.

In this aspect, when selecting pseudo-recombination sites in a targetcell (attT), the genomic sequences of the target cell can be searchedfor suitable pseudo-recombination sites using either the attP or attBsequences associated with a particular recombinase. Functional sizes andthe amount of heterogeneity that can be tolerated in these recombinationsequences can be evaluated, for example, as described in Examples 8 and9.

When a pseudo-recombination site is identified using either attP or attBsearch sequences, the other recombination site can be used in thetargeting construct. For example, if attP for a selected recombinase isused to identify a pseudo-recombination site in the target cell genome,then the wild-type attB sequence can be used in the targeting construct.In an alternative example, if attB for a selected recombinase is used toidentify a pseudo-recombination site in the target cell genome, then thewild-type attP sequence can be used in the targeting construct.

The targeting constructs contemplated by the invention may containadditional nucleic acid fragments such as control sequences, markersequences, selection sequences and the like as discussed below.

1.2.0 Targeting Constructs and Methods of the Present Invention

The present invention also provides means for targeted insertion of apolynucleotide (or nucleic acid sequence(s)) of interest into a genomeby, for example, (i) providing a recombinase, wherein the recombinase iscapable of facilitating recombination between a first recombination siteand a second recombination site, (ii) providing a targeting constructhaving a first recombination sequence and a polynucleotide of interest,(iii) introducing the recombinase and the targeting construct into acell which contains in its nucleic acid the second recombination site,wherein said introducing is done under conditions that allow therecombinase to facilitate a recombination event between the first andsecond recombination sites.

Historically, the attachment site in a bacterial genome is designated“attB” and in a corresponding bacteriophage the site is designated“attP”. A recombination site in a cell of interest is designated hereinas “attT”. A recombination site in a targeting vector is referred toherein as “attD”.

In one aspect of the present invention, at least onepseudo-recombination site for a selected recombinase is identified in atarget cell of interest (attT). These sites can be identified by severalmethods including searching all known sequences derived from the cell ofinterest against a wild-type recombination site (e.g., attB or attP) fora selected recombinase (e.g., as described in Example 1). Thefunctionality of pseudo-recombination sites identified in this way canthen be empirically evaluated following the teachings of the presentspecification to determine their ability to participate in arecombinase-mediated recombination event.

1.2.1 Targeting Constructs of the Present Invention

A targeting construct, to direct integration to thispseudo-recombination site, would then comprise a recombination site(attD) wherein the recombinase can facilitate a recombination eventbetween attT and attD, and a polynucleotide of interest. Polynucleotidesof interest can include, but are not limited to, expression cassettesencoding polypeptide products. The targeting constructs are typicallycircular and may also contain selectable markers, an origin ofreplication, and other elements. Targeting constructs of the presentinvention are typically circular.

A variety of expression vectors are suitable for use in the practice ofthe present invention, both for prokaryotic expression and eukaryoticexpression. In general, the targeting construct will have one or more ofthe following features: a promoter, promoter-enhancer sequences, aselection marker sequence, an origin of replication, an inducibleelement sequence, an epitope—tag sequence, and the like.

Promoter and promoter-enhancer sequences are DNA sequences to which RNApolymerase binds and initiates transcription. The promoter determinesthe polarity of the transcript by specifying which strand will betranscribed. Bacterial promoters consist of consensus sequences, -35 and-10 nucleotides relative to the transcriptional start, which are boundby a specific sigma factor and RNA polymerase. Eukaryotic promoters aremore complex. Most promoters utilized in expression vectors aretranscribed by RNA polymerase II. General transcription factors (GTFS)first bind specific sequences near the start and then recruit thebinding of RNA polymerase II. In addition to these minimal promoterelements, small sequence elements are recognized specifically by modularDNA-binding/trans-activating proteins (e.g. AP-1, SP-1) that regulatethe activity of a given promoter. Viral promoters serve the samefunction as bacterial or eukaryotic promoters and either provide aspecific RNA polymerase in trans (bacteriophage T7) or recruit cellularfactors and RNA polymerase (SV40, RSV, CMV). Viral promoters may bepreferred as they are generally particularly strong promoters.

Promoters may be, furthermore, either constitutive or regulatable (i.e.,inducible or derepressible). Inducible elements are DNA sequenceelements which act in conjunction with promoters and bind eitherrepressors (e.g. lacO/LAC Iq repressor system in E. coli) or inducers(e.g. gal1/GAL4 inducer system in yeast). In either case, transcriptionis virtually “shut off”, until the promoter is derepressed or induced,at which point transcription is “turned-on.”

Examples of constitutive promoters include the int promoter ofbacteriophage λ, the bla promoter of the β-lactamase gene sequence ofpBR322, the CAT promoter of the chloramphenicol acetyl transferase genesequence of pPR325, and the like. Examples of inducible prokaryoticpromoters include the major right and left promoters of bacteriophage(P_(L) and P_(R)), the trp, reca, lacZ, AraC and gal promoters of E.coli, the α-amylase (Ulmanen Ett at., J. Bacteriol. 162:176-182, 1985)and the sigma-28-specific promoters of B. subtilis (Gilman et al., Genesequence 32:11-20 (1984)), the promoters of the bacteriophages ofBacillus (Gryczan, In: The Molecular Biology of the Bacilli, AcademicPress, Inc., NY (1982)), Streptomyces promoters (Ward et at., Mol. Gen.Genet. 203:468-478, 1986), and the like. Exemplary prokaryotic promotersare reviewed by Glick (J. Ind. Microtiot. 1:277-282, 1987); Cenatiempo(Biochimie 68:505-516, 1986); and Gottesman (Ann. Rev. Genet.18:415-442, 1984).

Preferred eukaryotic promoters include, but are not limited to, thefollowing: the promoter of the mouse metallothionein I gene sequence(Hamer et al., J. Mol. Appl. Gen. 1:273-288, 1982); the TK promoter ofHerpes virus (McKnight, Cell 31:355-365, 1982); the SV40 early promoter(Benoist et al., Nature (London) 290:304-310, 1981); the yeast gall genesequence promoter (Johnston et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA)79:6971-6975, 1982); Silver et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA)81:5951-59SS, 1984), the CMV promoter, the EF-1 promoter,Ecdysone-responsive promoters), tetracycline-responsive promoter, andthe like.

Exemplary promoters for use in the present invention are selected suchthat they are functional in cell type (and/or animal or plant) intowhich they are being introduced.

Selection markers are valuable elements in expression vectors as theyprovide a means to select for growth of only those cells that contain avector. Such markers are of two types: drug resistance and auxotrophic.A drug resistance marker enables cells to detoxify an exogenously addeddrug that would otherwise kill the cell. Auxotrophic markers allow cellsto synthesize an essential component (usually an amino acid) while grownin media that lacks that essential component.

Common selectable marker genes include those for resistance toantibiotics such as ampicillin, tetracycline, kanamycin, bleomycin,streptomycin, hygromycin, neomycin, Zeocin™, and the like. Selectableauxotrophic genes include, for example, hisD, that allows growth inhistidine free media in the presence of histidinol.

A further element useful in an expression vector is an origin ofreplication. Replication origins are unique DNA segments that containmultiple short repeated sequences that are recognized by multimericorigin-binding proteins and that play a key role in assembling DNAreplication enzymes at the origin site. Suitable origins of replicationfor use in expression vectors employed herein include E. coli oriC,colE1 plasmid origin, 2μ and ARS (both useful in yeast systems), sf1,SV40, EBV oriP (useful in mammalian systems), and the like.

Epitope tags are short peptide sequences that are recognized by epitopespecific antibodies. A fusion protein comprising a recombinant proteinand an epitope tag can be simply and easily purified using an antibodybound to a chromatography resin. The presence of the epitope tagfurthermore allows the recombinant protein to be detected in subsequentassays, such as Western blots, without having to produce an antibodyspecific for the recombinant protein itself. Examples of commonly usedepitope tags include V5, glutathione-S-transferase (GST), hemaglutinin(HA), the peptide Phe-His-His-Thr-Thr, chitin binding domain, and thelike.

A further useful element in an expression vector is a multiple cloningsite or polylinker. Synthetic DNA encoding a series of restrictionendonuclease recognition sites is inserted into a plasmid vector, forexample, downstream of the promoter element. These sites are engineeredfor convenient cloning of DNA into the vector at a specific position.

The foregoing elements can be combined to produce expression vectorssuitable for use in the methods of the invention. Those of skill in theart would be able to select and combine the elements suitable for use intheir particular system in view of the teachings of the presentspecification. Suitable prokaryotic vectors include plasmids such asthose capable of replication in E. coli (for example, pBR322, ColE1,pSC101, PACYC 184, itVX, pRSET, pBAD (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) andthe like). Such plasmids are disclosed by Sambrook (cf. “MolecularCloning: A Laboratory Manual,” second edition, edited by Sambrook,Fritsch, & Maniatis, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, (1989)). Bacillusplasmids include pC194, pC221, pT127, and the like, and are disclosed byGryczan (In: The Molecular Biology of the Bacilli, Academic Press, NY(1982), pp. 307-329). Suitable Streptomyces plasmids include pli101(Kendall et al., J. Bacteriol. 169:4177-4183, 1987), and streptomycesbacteriophages such as φC31 (Chater et al., In: Sixth InternationalSymposium on Actinomycetales Biology, Akademiai Kaido, Budapest, Hungary(1986), pp. 45-54). Pseudomonas plasmids are reviewed by John et al.(Rev. Infect. Dis. 8:693-704, 1986), and Izaki (Jpn. J. Bacteriol.33:729-742, 1978).

Suitable eukaryotic plasmids include, for example, BPV, EBV, vaccinia,SV40, 2-micron circle, pcDNA3.1, pcDNA3.1/GS, pYES2/GS, pMT, p IND,pIND(Sp1), pVgRXR (Invitrogen), and the like, or their derivatives. Suchplasmids are well known in the art (Botstein et al., Miami Wntr. SyTnp.19:265-274, 1982; Broach, In: “The Molecular Biology of the YeastSaccharomyces: Life Cycle and Inheritance”, Cold Spring HarborLaboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., p. 445-470, 1981; Broach, Cell28:203-204, 1982; Dilon et at., J. Clin. Hematol. Oncol. 10:39-48, 1980;Maniatis, In: Cell Biology: A Comprehensive Treatise, Vol. 3, GeneSequence Expression, Academic Press, NY, pp. 563-608,1980.

The targeting cassettes described herein can be constructed utilizingmethodologies known in the art of molecular biology (see, for example,Ausubel or Maniatis) in view of the teachings of the specification. Asdescribed above, the targeting constructs are assembled by inserting,into a suitable vector backbone, an attD (recombination site),polynucleotides encoding sequences of interest operably linked to apromoter of interest; and, optionally a sequence encoding a positiveselection marker.

A preferred method of obtaining polynucleotides, including suitableregulatory sequences (e.g., promoters) is PCR. General procedures forPCR are taught in MacPherson et al., PCR: A PRACTICAL APPROACH, (IRLPress at Oxford University Press, (1991)). PCR conditions for eachapplication reaction may be empirically determined. A number ofparameters influence the success of a reaction. Among these parametersare annealing temperature and time, extension time, Mg2+ and ATPconcentration, pH, and the relative concentration of primers, templatesand deoxyribonucleotides. After amplification, the resulting fragmentscan be detected by agarose gel electrophoresis followed by visualizationwith ethidium bromide staining and ultraviolet illumination.

The expression cassettes, targeting constructs, vectors, recombinasesand recombinase-coding sequences of the present invention can beformulated into kits.

Components of such kits can include, but are not limited to, containers,instructions, solutions, buffers, disposables, and hardware.

1.2.2 Introducing Recombinases

In the methods of the invention a site-specific recombinase isintroduced into a cell whose genome is to be modified. Methods ofintroducing functional proteins into cells are well known in the art.Introduction of purified recombinase protein ensures a transientpresence of the protein and its function, which is often a preferredembodiment. Alternatively, a gene encoding the recombinase can beincluded in an expression vector used to transform the cell. It isgenerally preferred that the recombinase be present for only such timeas is necessary for insertion of the nucleic acid fragments into thegenome being modified. Thus, the lack of permanence associated with mostexpression vectors is not expected to be detrimental.

The recombinases used in the practice of the present invention can beintroduced into a target cell before, concurrently with, or after theintroduction of a targeting vector. The recombinase can be directlyintroduced into a cell as a protein, for example, using liposomes,coated particles, or microinjection. Alternately, a polynucleotideencoding the recombinase can be introduced into the cell using asuitable expression vector. The targeting vector components describedabove are useful in the construction of expression cassettes containingsequences encoding a recombinase of interest. Expression of therecombinase is typically desired to be transient. Accordingly, vectorsproviding transient expression of the recombinase are preferred in thepractice of the present invention. However, expression of therecombinase can be regulated in other ways, for example, by placing theexpression of the recombinase under the control of a regulatablepromoter (i.e., a promoter whose expression can be selectively inducedor repressed).

Sequences encoding recombinases useful in the practice of the presentinvention are known and include, but are not limited to, the following:Cre—Sternberg, et al., J. Mol. Biol. 187:197-212; φC31—Kuhstoss and Rao,J. Mol. Biol. 222:897-908, 1991; TP901-1—Christiansen, et al., J. Bact.178:5164-5173, 1996; R4—Matsuura, et al., J. Bact. 178:3374-3376, 1996.

Recombinases for use in the practice of the present invention can beproduced recombinantly or purified as previously described. Polypeptideshaving the desired recombinase activity can be purified to a desireddegree of purity by methods known in the art of protein ammonium sulfateprecipitation, purification, including, but not limited to, sizefractionation, affinity chromatography, HPLC, ion exchangechromatography, heparin agarose affinity chromatography (e.g., Thorpe &Smith, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 95:5505-5510, 1998.)

1.2.3 Cells

Cells suitable for modification employing the methods of the inventioninclude both prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells, provided that thecell's genome contains a pseudo-recombination sequence. Prokaryoticcells are cells that lack a defined nucleus. Examples of suitableprokaryotic cells include bacterial cells, mycoplasmal cells andarchaebacterial cells. Particularly preferred prokaryotic cells includethose that are useful either in various types of test systems (discussedin greater detail below) or those that have some industrial utility suchas Klebsiella oxytoca (ethanol production), Clostridium acetobutylicum(butanol production), and the like (see Green and Bennet, Biotech &Bioengineering 58:215-221, 1998; Ingram, et al, Biotech & Bioengineering58:204-206, 1998). Suitable eukaryotic cells include both animal cells(such as from insect, rodent, cow, goat, rabbit, sheep, non-humanprimate, human, and the like) and plant cells (such as rice, corn,cotton, tobacco, tomato, potato, and the like). Cell types applicable toparticular purposes are discussed in greater detail below.

Yet another embodiment of the invention comprises isolated geneticallyengineered cells. Suitable cells may be prokaryotic or eukaryotic, asdiscussed above. The genetically engineered cells of the invention maybe unicellular organisms or may be derived from multicellular organisms.By “isolated” in reference to genetically engineered cells derived frommulticellular organisms it is meant the cells are outside a living body,whether plant or animal, and in an artificial environment. The use ofthe term isolated does not imply that the genetically engineered cellsare the only cells present.

In one embodiment, the genetically engineered cells of the inventioncontain any one of the nucleic acid constructs of the invention. In asecond embodiment, a recombinase that specifically recognizesrecombination sequences is introduced into genetically engineered cellscontaining one of the nucleic acid constructs of the invention underconditions such that the nucleic acid sequence(s) of interest will beinserted into the genome. Thus, the genetically engineered cells possessa modified genome. Methods of introducing such a recombinase are wellknown in the art and are discussed above.

The genetically engineered cells of the invention can be employed in avariety of ways. Unicellular organisms can be modified to producecommercially valuable substances such as recombinant proteins,industrial solvents, industrially useful enzymes, and the like.Preferred unicellular organisms include fungi such as yeast (forexample, S. pombe, Pichia pastoris, S. cerevisiae (such as INVSc1), andthe like) Aspergillis, and the like, and bacteria such as Klebsiella,Streptomyces, and the like.

Isolated cells from multicellular organisms can be similarly useful,including insect cells, mammalian cells and plant cells. Mammalian cellsthat may be useful include those derived from rodents, primates and thelike. They include HeLa cells, cells of fibroblast origin such as VERO,3T3 or CHOK1, HEK 293 cells or cells of lymphoid origin (such as 32Dcells) and their derivatives. Preferred mammalian host cells includenonadherent cells such as CHO, 32D, and the like.

In addition, plant cells are also available as hosts, and controlsequences compatible with plant cells are available, such as thecauliflower mosaic virus 35S and 19S, nopaline synthase promoter andpolyadenylation signal sequences, and the like. Appropriate transgenicplant cells can be used to produce transgenic plants.

Another preferred host is an insect cell, for example from theDrosophila larvae. Using insect cells as hosts, the Drosophila alcoholdehydrogenase promoter can be used (Rubin, Science 240:1453-1459, 1988).Alternatively, baculovirus vectors can be engineered to express largeamounts of peptide encoded by a desired nucleic acid sequence in insectcells (Jasny, Science 238:1653, 1987); Miller et al., In: GeneticEngineering (1986), Setlow, J. K., et al., eds., Plenum, Vol. 8, pp.277-297).

The genetically engineered cells of the invention are additionallyuseful as tools to screen for substances capable of modulating theactivity of a protein encoded by a nucleic acid fragment of interest.Thus, an additional embodiment of the invention comprises methods ofscreening comprising contacting genetically engineered cells of theinvention with a test substance and monitoring the cells for a change incell phenotype, cell proliferation, cell differentiation, enzymaticactivity of the protein or the interaction between the protein and anatural binding partner of the protein when compared to test cells notcontacted with the test substance.

A variety of test substances can be evaluated using the geneticallyengineered cells of the invention including peptides, proteins,antibodies, low molecular weight organic compounds, natural productsderived from, for example, fungal or plant cells, and the like. By “lowmolecular weight organic compound” it is, meant a chemical species witha molecular weight of generally less than 500-1000. Sources of testsubstances are well known to those of skill in the art.

Various assay methods employing cells are also well known by thoseskilled in the art. They include, for example, assays for enzymaticactivity (Hirth, et al, U.S. Pat. No. 5,763,198, issued Jun. 9, 1998),assays for binding of a test substance to a protein expressed by thegenetically engineered cells, assays for transcriptional activation of areporter gene, and the like.

Cells modified by the methods of the present invention can be maintainedunder conditions that, for example, (i) keep them alive but do notpromote growth, (ii) promote growth of the cells, and/or (iii) cause thecells to differentiate or dedifferentiate. Cell culture conditions aretypically permissive for the action of the recombinase in the cells,although regulation of the activity of the recombinase may also bemodulated by culture conditions (e.g., raising or lowering thetemperature at which the cells are cultured). For a given cell,cell-type, tissue, or organism, culture conditions are known in the art.

2.0.0 Transgenic Plants and Non-Human Animals

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises transgenic plantsand nonhuman transgenic animals whose genomes have been modified byemploying the methods and compositions of the invention. Transgenicanimals may be produced employing the methods of the present inventionto serve as a model system for the study of various disorders and forscreening of drugs that modulate such disorders.

A “transgenic” plant or animal refers to a genetically engineered plantor animal, or offspring of genetically engineered plants or animals. Atransgenic plant or animal usually contains material from at least oneunrelated organism, such as, from a virus. The term “animal” as used inthe context of transgenic organisms means all species except human. Italso includes an individual animal in all stages of development,including embryonic and fetal stages. Farm animals (e.g., chickens,pigs, goats, sheep, cows, horses, rabbits and the like), rodents (suchas mice), and domestic pets (e.g., cats and dogs) are included withinthe scope of the present invention. In a preferred embodiment, theanimal is a mouse or a rat.

The term “chimeric” plant or animal is used to refer to plants oranimals in which the heterologous gene is found, or in which theheterologous gene is expressed in some but not all cells of the plant oranimal.

The term transgenic animal also includes a germ cell line transgenicanimal A “germ cell line transgenic animal” is a transgenic animal inwhich the genetic information provided by the invention method has beentaken up and incorporated into a germ line cell, therefore conferringthe ability to transfer the information to offspring. If such offspring,in fact, possess some or all of that information, then they, too, aretransgenic animals.

Methods of generating transgenic plants and animals are known in the artand can be used in combination with the teachings of the presentapplication.

In one embodiment, a transgenic animal of the present invention isproduced by introducing into a single cell embryo a nucleic acidconstruct, comprising an attD recombination site capable of recombiningwith an attT recombination site found within the genome of the organismfrom which the cell was derived and a nucleic acid fragment of interest,in a manner such that the nucleic acid fragment of interest is stablyintegrated into the DNA of germ line cells of the mature animal and isinherited in normal Mendelian fashion. In this embodiment, the nucleicacid fragment of interest can be any one of the fragment describedpreviously. Alternatively, the nucleic acid sequence of interest canencode an exogenous product that disrupts or interferes with expressionof an endogenously produced protein of interest, yielding a transgenicanimals with decreased expression of the protein of interest.

A variety of methods are available for the production of transgenicanimals. A nucleic acid construct of the invention can be injected intothe pronucleus, or cytoplasm, of a fertilized egg before fusion of themale and female pronuclei, or injected into the nucleus of an embryoniccell (e.g., the nucleus of a two-cell embryo) following the initiationof cell division (Brinster, et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 82: 4438,1985). Embryos can be infected with viruses, especially retroviruses,modified with an attD recombination site and a nucleic acid sequence ofinterest. The cell can further be treated with a site-specificrecombinase as described above to promote integration of the nucleicacid sequence of interest into the genome.

By way of example only, to prepare a transgenic mouse, female mice areinduced to superovulate. After being allowed to mate, the females aresacrificed by CO₂ asphyxiation or cervical dislocation and embryos arerecovered from excised oviducts. Surrounding cumulus cells are removed.Pronuclear embryos are then washed and stored until the time ofinjection. Randomly cycling adult female mice are paired withvasectomized males. Recipient females are mated at the same time asdonor females. Embryos then are transferred surgically. The procedurefor generating transgenic rats is similar to that of mice. See Hammer,et al., Cell 63:1099-1112, 1990). Rodents suitable for transgenicexperiments can be obtained from standard commercial sources such asCharles River (Wilmington, Mass.), Taconic (Germantown, N.Y.), HarlanSprague Dawley (Indianapolis, Ind.), etc.

The procedures for manipulation of the rodent embryo and formicroinjection of DNA into the pronucleus of the zygote are well knownto those of ordinary skill in the art (Hogan, et al., supra).Microinjection procedures for fish, amphibian eggs and birds aredetailed in Houdebine and Chourrout, Experientia 47:897-905, 1991).Other procedures for introduction of DNA into tissues of animals aredescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,945,050 (Sandford et al., Jul. 30, 1990).

Totipotent or pluripotent stem cells derived from the inner cell mass ofthe embryo and stabilized in culture can be manipulated in culture toincorporate nucleic acid sequences employing invention methods. Atransgenic animal can be produced from such cells through injection intoa blastocyst that is then implanted into a foster mother and allowed tocome to term.

Methods for the culturing of stem cells and the subsequent production oftransgenic animals by the introduction of DNA into stem cells usingmethods such as electroporation, calcium phosphate/DNA precipitation,microinjection, liposome fusion, retroviral infection, and the like arealso are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. See, forexample, Teratocarcinomas and Embryonic Stem Cells, A PracticalApproach, E. J. Robertson, ed., IRL Press, 1987). Reviews of standardlaboratory procedures for microinjection of heterologous DNAs intomammalian (mouse, pig, rabbit, sheep, goat, cow) fertilized ova include:Hogan et al., Manipulating the Mouse Embryo (Cold Spring Harbor Press1986); Krimpenfort et al., 1991, Bio/Technology 9:86; Palmiter et al.,1985, Cell 41:343; Kraemer et al., Genetic Manipulation of the EarlyMammalian Embryo (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press 1985); Hammer etal., 1985, Nature, 315:680; Purcel et al., 1986, Science, 244:1281;Wagner et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,175,385; Krimpenfort et al., U.S. Pat.No. 5,175,384, the respective contents of which are incorporated byreference.

The final phase of the procedure is to inject targeted ES cells intoblastocysts and to transfer the blastocysts into pseudopregnant females.The resulting chimeric animals are bred and the offspring are analyzedby Southern blotting to identify individuals that carry the transgene.Procedures for the production of non-rodent mammals and other animalshave been discussed by others (see Houdebine and Chourrout, supra;Pursel, et al., Science 244:1281-1288, 1989; and Simms, et al.,Bio/Technology 6:179-183, 1988). Animals carrying the transgene can beidentified by methods well known in the art, e.g., by dot blotting orSouthern blotting.

The term transgenic as used herein additionally includes any organismwhose genome has been altered by in vitro manipulation of the earlyembryo or fertilized egg or by any transgenic technology to induce aspecific gene knockout. The term “gene knockout” as used herein, refersto the targeted disruption of a gene in vivo with loss of function thathas been achieved by use of the invention vector. In one embodiment,transgenic animals having gene knockouts are those in which the targetgene has been rendered nonfunctional by an insertion targeted to thegene to be rendered non-functional by targeting a pseudo-recombinationsite located within the gene sequence.

3.0.0 Gene Therapy and Disorders

A further embodiment of the invention comprises a method of treating adisorder in a subject in need of such treatment. In one embodiment ofthe method, at least one cell or cell type (or tissue, etc.) of thesubject has a target recombination sequence (designated attT). Thiscell(s) is transformed with a nucleic acid construct (a “targetingconstruct”) comprising a second recombination sequence (designated attD)and one or more polynucleotides of interest (typically a therapeuticgene). Into the same cell a recombinase is introduced that specificallyrecognizes the recombination sequences under conditions such that thenucleic acid sequence of interest is inserted into the genome via arecombination event between attT and attD. Subjects treatable using themethods of the invention include both humans and non-human animals. Suchmethods utilize the targeting constructs and recombinases of the presentinvention.

A variety of disorders may be treated by employing the method of theinvention including monogenic disorders, infectious diseases, acquireddisorders, cancer, and the like. Exemplary monogenic disorders includeADA deficiency, cystic fibrosis, familial-hypercholesterolemia,hemophilia, chronic ganulomatous disease, Duchenne muscular dystrophy,Fanconi anemia, sickle-cell anemia, Gaucher's disease, Hunter syndrome,X-linked SCID, and the like.

Infectious diseases treatable by employing the methods of the inventioninclude infection with various types of virus including human T-celllymphotropic virus, influenza virus, papilloma virus, hepatitis virus,herpes virus, Epstein-Bar virus, immunodeficiency viruses (HIV, and thelike), cytomegalovirus, and the like. Also included are infections withother pathogenic organisms such as Mycobacterium Tuberculosis,Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and the like or parasites such as Plasmadiumfalciparum, and the like.

The term “acquired disorder” as used herein refers to a noncongenitaldisorder. Such disorders are generally considered more complex thanmonogenic disorders and may result from inappropriate or unwantedactivity of one or more genes. Examples of such disorders includeperipheral artery disease, rheumatoid arthritis, coronary arterydisease, and the like.

A particular group of acquired disorders treatable by employing themethods of the invention include various cancers, including both solidtumors and hematopoietic cancers such as leukemias and lymphomas. Solidtumors that are treatable utilizing the invention method includecarcinomas, sarcomas, osteomas, fibrosarcomas, chondrosarcomas, and thelike. Specific cancers include breast cancer, brain cancer, lung cancer(non-small cell and small cell), colon cancer, pancreatic cancer,prostate cancer, gastric cancer, bladder cancer, kidney cancer, head andneck cancer, and the like.

The suitability of the particular place in the genome is dependent inpart on the particular disorder being treated. For example, if thedisorder is a monogenic disorder and the desired treatment is theaddition of a therapeutic nucleic acid encoding a non-mutated form ofthe nucleic acid thought to be the causative agent of the disorder, asuitable place may be a region of the genome that does not encode anyknown protein and which allows for a reasonable expression level of theadded nucleic acid. Methods of identifying suitable places in the genomeare well known in the art and described further in the Examples below.

The nucleic acid construct useful in this embodiment is additionallycomprised of one or more nucleic acid fragments of interest. Preferrednucleic acid fragments of interest for use in this embodiment aretherapeutic genes and/or control regions, as previously defined. Thechoice of nucleic acid sequence will depend on the nature of thedisorder to be treated. For example, a nucleic acid construct intendedto treat hemophilia B, which is caused by a deficiency of coagulationfactor IX, may comprise a nucleic acid fragment encoding functionalfactor IX. A nucleic acid construct intended to treat obstructiveperipheral artery disease may comprise nucleic acid fragments encodingproteins that stimulate the growth of new blood vessels, such as, forexample, vascular endothelial growth factor, platelet-derived growthfactor, and the like. Those of skill in the art would readily recognizewhich nucleic acid fragments of interest would be useful in thetreatment of a particular disorder.

The nucleic acid construct can be administered to the subject beingtreated using a variety of methods. Administration can take place invivo or ex viva. By “in vivo,” it is meant in the living body of ananimal. By “ex vivo” it is meant that cells or organs are modifiedoutside of the body, such cells or organs are typically returned to aliving body.

Methods for the therapeutic administration of nucleic acid constructsare well known in the art. Nucleic acid constructs can be delivered withcationic lipids (Goddard, et al, Gene Therapy, 4:1231-1236, 1997;Gorman, et al, Gene Therapy 4:983-992, 1997; Chadwick, et al, GeneTherapy 4:937-942, 1997; Gokhale, et al, Gene Therapy 4:1289-1299, 1997;Gao, and Huang, Gene Therapy 2:710-722, 1995, all of which areincorporated by reference herein), using viral vectors (Monahan, et al,Gene Therapy 4:40-49, 1997; Onodera, et al, Blood 91:30-36, 1998, all ofwhich are incorporated by reference herein), by uptake of “naked DNA”,and the like. Techniques well known in the art for the transfection ofcells (see discussion above) can be used for the ex vivo administrationof nucleic acid constructs. The exact formulation, route ofadministration and dosage can be chosen by the individual physician inview of the patient's condition. (See e.g. Fingl et al., 1975, in “ThePharmacological Basis of Therapeutics”, Ch. 1 p 1).

It should be noted that the attending physician would know how to andwhen to terminate, interrupt, or adjust administration due to toxicity,to organ dysfunction, and the like. Conversely, the attending physicianwould also know how to adjust treatment to higher levels if the clinicalresponse were not adequate (precluding toxicity). The magnitude of anadministered dose in the management of the disorder being treated willvary with the severity of the condition to be treated, with the route ofadministration, and the like. The severity of the condition may, forexample, be evaluated, in part, by standard prognostic evaluationmethods. Further, the dose and perhaps dose frequency will also varyaccording to the age, body weight, and response of the individualpatient.

In general at least 1-10% of the cells targeted for genomic modificationshould be modified in the treatment of a disorder. Thus, the method androute of administration will optimally be chosen to modify at least0.1-1% of the target cells per administration. In this way, the numberof administrations can be held to a minimum in order to increase theefficiency and convenience of the treatment.

Depending on the specific conditions being treated, such agents may beformulated and administered systemically or locally. Techniques forformulation and administration may be found in “Remington'sPharmaceutical Sciences,” 1990, 18th ed., Mack Publishing Co., Easton,Pa. Suitable routes may include oral, rectal, transdermal, vaginal,transmucosal, or intestinal administration; parenteral delivery,including intramuscular, subcutaneous, intramedullary injections, aswell as intrathecal, direct intraventricular, intravenous,intraperitoneal, intranasal, or intraocular injections, just to name afew.

The subject being treated will additionally be administered arecombinase that specifically recognizes the attT and attD recombinationsequences that are selected for use. The particular recombinase can beadministered by including a nucleic acid encoding it as part of anucleic acid construct, or as a protein to be taken up by the cellswhose genome is to be modified. Methods and routes of administrationwill be similar to those described above for administration of atargeting construct comprising a recombination sequence and nucleic acidsequence of interest. The recombinase protein is likely to only berequired for a limited period of time for integration of the nucleicacid sequence of interest. Therefore, if introduced as a recombinasegene, the vector carrying the recombinase gene will lack sequencesmediating prolonged retention. For example, conventional plasmid DNAdecays rapidly in most mammalian cells. The recombinase gene may also beequipped with gene expression sequences that limit its expression. Forexample, an inducible promoter can be used, so that recombinaseexpression can be temporally limited by limited exposure to the inducingagent. One such exemplary group of promoters are tetracycline-responsivepromoters the expression of which can be regulated using tetracycline ordoxycycline.

The invention will now be described in greater detail by reference tothe following non-limiting Examples.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Identification of Pseudo-recombination Sequences

The following example describes the identification of pseudo-loxPsequences by computer search. Similar procedures can be used to identifyother pseudo-recombination sequences.

The find patterns algorithm of the Wisconsin Software Package Version9.0 developed by the Genetics Computer Group (GCG; Madison, Wis.), wasused to screen all sequences in the GenBank database (Benson et al.,1998, Nucleic Acids Res. 26, 1-7). Default parameters are given below.Patterns resembling the wild-type loxP sequence, called pseudo-loxPsites (ψlox) herein, were sought. The results from two different searchstrategies (Patterns 1 and #2, see below) were pooled.

The wild-type loxP site is 34 base pairs long and consists of twoidentical thirteen-basepair palindromes, separated by an eight-basepaircore. It has been demonstrated that, while strand cutting and exchangetake place in the eight-basepair core, the DNA sequence of most of thiscore is not critical, as long as it matches between the two sites thatare to recombine (Hoess et al., 1986, Nucleic Acids Res. 14, 2287-2300;Sauer, 1996, Nucleic Acids Res. 24, 4608-4613). Therefore, most of thesebases were set as n's in the search algorithm. Nucleic acid constructscreated using the principles embodied in the invention allow for fullcontrol over the sequence of the incoming lox site, as itseight-basepair core can be made to match that of the genomic site beingtargeted. This feature of the recombination reaction gives the desiredlevel of specificity, allowing targeting of only one ψlox site in thegenome.

Previous studies have suggested that the central bases of thethirteen-basepair palindrome, those closest to the eight-basepair core,are important for Cre recognition. Therefore, greater weight was givento matching the inner four or five positions of the palindrome.

Using search Pattern #1, a search was constructed in such a way that thesequences returned by the search program would only look for resemblancein the thirteenbasepair palindromic regions of the IoxP site. Thesequence entered into the search algorithm is shown below:

(SEQ ID NO: 4) Pattern #1: ATAACTTCGTATA(n){8}TATACGAAGTTAT.The (n) {8} allows the program to substitute any eight nucleotides inthe region between the two thirteen-basepair inverted repeats and onlylook for similarity to the thirteen-basepair inverted repeats. Bothstrands were searched and no gaps or extensions were allowed.

When the search was conducted allowing for a maximum of eightmismatches, a large number of hits were obtained in the primatedatabase. The total number of sequences searched was 73,825,representing 118,684,866 basepairs of sequence. The hits obtained fromthis search were then reviewed to identify likely pseudo-loxPcandidates. Sequences having exact matches of at least four or fivenucleotides immediately adjacent to the core on each side were givenpreference because mismatches more than five nucleotides away from thecore on either side may be tolerated to some extent by Cre recombinase.A similar search was undertaken with the rodent database.

Search Pattern #2 made use of additional search criteria derived fromstructural studies of Cre. The crystal structure at 2.4 angstromresolution of Cre recombinase complexed with loxP DNA reveals thatcontact is made between Cre and its target site at certain bases (Guo etal., 1997, Nature 389, 40-46). Footprinting with Fe-EDTA using Cre boundto the loxP site also reveals points of contact between Cre and bases inthe loxP site (Hoess et al., 1990, J. Mol. Biol. 216, 873-15 882). Thesebases can be weighted more heavily to favor matching with the wild-typesite. The search formula for determining a fit to these structuralcriteria was as follows for the 34-basepair lox site:

(SEQ ID NO: 5) Pattern #2: ATnACnnCnTATA nnnTAnnn TATRnGnnGTnAT.Again, both strands were searched and no gaps or extensions wereallowed. A search demanding four or fewer mismatches with the specified16 basepairs yielded an extensive list of matches with the extant DNAsequences.

Searches were done in GenBank in the Primate, Rodent, Invertebrate,Plant, Fungus, and Bacteria databases. Some of the sites identifiedusing these methods are shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B. The core sequences areshown in boldface type.

Example 2 In vitro Excision Assay of Pseudo-lox Sites in Bacteria andHuman Cells

The following example demonstrates that the pseudo-recombinationsequences of the invention are functional as sites for recombination ofa nucleic acid sequence by a site-specific recombinase.

A negative control plasmid, pLCG1 (FIG. 1A), was created by inserting a4.3-kb XbaI-BspHI fragment containing the lacz gene, encodingβ-galactosidase, driven by the CMV promoter (from pCMVSPORT-βgal,Gibco/BRL) into the EcoRV site of pLitmus29 (New England Biolabs,Beverly, Mass.) in the opposite orientation to the LacZα gene alreadypresent in the plasmid. This plasmid was then used as a base for theconstruction of other plasmids used in the excision assay. A verysimilar negative control plasmid, pL2β50, was used in some of theexperiments in place of pLCG1. Briefly, annealed oligonucleotidescontaining the lox sites being tested and a marker restriction enzymesite were directionally cloned into the BamHI-HindIII sites on one sideand the BglII-XhoI sites on the other side of the CMV-lacZ construct.This cloning was carried out to ensure that Cre-induced site-specificrecombination would result in excision of the lacz marker gene. Aschematic representation of the plasmids is shown in FIGS. 1A through1C. FIG. 1D shows the DNA sequences of the lox sites from pWTLox² shownin FIG. 1B (top line of FIG. 1D) and plasmid p ψloxh7q21 shown in FIG.1C (bottom lines of FIG. 1D).

The positive control plasmid used in the excision assay (pWTLox², FIG.1B) had the 34-bp wild-type loxP site cloned into both the BamHI-HindIIIsite and the BglII-XhoI site. The test plasmids had apseudo-recombination site cloned into the BglII-XhoI site and arecombination site containing the 13-bp palindromic repeats of loxPflanking the core sequence of the pseudo-recombination sequence clonedinto the BamHI-HindIII site.

The bacterial strain used for the excision assay, 294-Cre (Buchholz, etal, Nucleic Acids Research 24:3318-3319, 1996) has been designed toconstitutively express Cre recombinase at 37° C.

Approximately 1 ng of the DNA being tested was electrotransformed intothe 294-Cre strain of E. coli using the Bio-Rad Gene Pulser (BioRadLaboratories, CA) at a field strength of 12.5 kV/cm, with a capacitanceof 25 μF and resistance of 200Ω. Aliquots of the transformation mix werespread on plates containing ampicillin (100 μg/ml), methicillin (100μg/ml), and X-gal (60 μg/ml). The plates were incubated at 37° C. for 18hours, after which they were scored for the presence of blue and whitecolonies. Bacteria containing the parent plasmid pLCG1 generated a bluebacterial colony when grown on these plates, whereas bacteria containinga plasmid from which lacZ sequence has been excised generated a whitecolony. The excision frequency was defined as the ratio of the number ofwhite colonies to the total number of colonies, expressed as apercentage.

As shown in Table 1 below, the excision frequency was close to 100% whenthe wild-type loxP sequences were present on the plasmid (positivecontrol) and no excision was observed when no loxP sites were present.

TABLE 1 Mean Recombination lox Site Efficiency Tested (%) none 0.00 loxP98.9 ψlox h7q21 11.5 ψlox h7q31 8.9 ψlox hXp22 99.0 ψlox h5p15 1.4 ψloxm9 4.0 ψlox m5 98.7

The results above are based on from 4 to 13 separate experiments foreach plasmid tested. The data indicate that pseudo-recombinationsequences are functional, and some pseudo-recombination sequences (ψloxhXp22 and ψlox m5) promote recombination at very high frequencies,comparable to the wild-type loxP sequence.

In conjunction with the data of Example 1, these recombinationefficiency results help identify which basepairs within loxP are mostcritical for Cre binding. A strict correlation between the number ofmismatches and the recombination efficiency was not observed. Therefore,it is clear that matches at specific positions are more important thanoverall homology. These results are consistent with the idea that thefour bases flanking the core are important, as the ψlox hp15 site, thathas a mismatch in this region while otherwise having good matches, hadthe lowest recombination frequency. The wild-type core sequence was notrequired. For example, ψlox m5, which had a recombination frequencyindistinguishable from that of loxP, had no matches to loxP in the 8-bpcore. However, the best sites had only A and T basepairs in the centraltwo positions of the core, indicating that this feature may beimportant.

The four ψlox sequences identified by using Pattern #2, ψlox hXp22, ψloxh5 p15, ψlox m5, and ψlox m9, included the two ψlox sites with thehighest excision efficiencies, ψlox hXp22 and ψlox m5, indistinguishablefrom loxP. On the other hand, ψlox h5 p15, also obtained using Pattern#2, had the lowest recombination efficiency of the sites tested,probably because it contained a mismatch in the four positions nearestthe core. These results suggest that while these first four positionsare critical, the requirement for matching at the first five positions,used in screening the sites obtained with search Pattern #1, was overlyrestrictive. Good results would be obtained by using Pattern #2 incombination with a stringent requirement for matching at the first fourpositions from the core.

A similar assay was carried out in mammalian cells Briefly, a plasmidexpressing Cre, pBS185 (Life Technologies Inc., Grand Island, N.Y.) wasmodified by the insertion of a kanamycin resistance gene into the uniqueScaI site to create pBS185-Kan. This modification renders cellstransfected with plasmid resistant to kanamycin but sensitive toampicillin. Approximately 2 μg of plasmid pBS185-Kan and 50 ng of one ofthe plasmids used in the bacterial assay described above weretransfected into 293 (ATCC Accession No. 1573), human embryonic kidneycells, using LipofectAmine (Life Technologies) following themanufacturer's recommendations. The transfected cells were treated withDNaseI 24 hours after transfection. The cells were grown at 37° C. inDulbecco's Modified Eagle medium (DMEM) for 72 hours after which lowmolecular weight DNA was isolated from the cells by Hirt extraction(Hirt, J. Mo. Biol. 26:365-369, 1967). The plasmid DNA waselectrotransformed into E. coli strain DH10B (Life Technologies) underthe conditions described above. Aliquots of the transformed bacteriawere grown on amp/meth/X-gal plates as described above and scored forthe presence of blue and white colonies.

Exemplary results are shown in FIG. 2. The frequency of excision seen ina mammalian cell background demonstrates the predictive nature of thebacterial assay system and demonstrates that the pseudo-recombinationsequences of the invention are active substrates forrecombinase-mediated recombination in a mammalian cell environment.

The ψlox h7q21 and ψlox hXp22 sites may mediate integration into thehuman genome. The ψlox h7q21 site is located in the q21 region ofchromosome 7, while the ψlox hXp22 site is situated in band p22 of the Xchromosome. The existence of these sequences in the human genome wasverified by sequencing the appropriate PCR fragments covering the sitesfrom human genomic DNA. Neither site is located in a coding sequence ora known gene.

Example 3 In vitro Transient Integration Assay of Pseudo-lox Sites inHuman Cells

The following example provides a model system for assessing the abilityof the pseudo-recombination sequences of the invention to promotegenomic modification by site-specific insertion.

The ψlox site to be tested was placed on a plasmid having tetracyclineresistance (FIG. 3, upper left). This plasmid represented the chromosomeand was the recipient for integration events, A lox site having thewild-type loxP palindromes and the 8-bp core of ψlox h7q21 was placednext to the lacZ gene on a second plasmid, this one having ampicillinresistance (FIG. 3, upper right). This plasmid represented the incomingdonor vector. These plasmids were constructed as follows: The plasmidpTM1 was generated by cloning a 155 base-pair AflIII-SnaBI fragment frompLitmus29 containing the multiple cloning site into a unique EcoRV siteof pUC-Tet, a tetracycline resistant derivative of pUC19 (C.R. Sclimentiand M.P.C., unpublished). The lox sites of interest were then clonedinto the BglII-XhoI site of this plasmid to generate the recipientplasmids for the integration assay (pRWT and pRh7q21).

The plasmid pLGWTLox² was used as a base for the construction of thedonor plasmids used in the integration assay. pLGWTLox² was created bytreating pWTLox² with EcoRI and subsequent religation to excise the CMVpromoter and create a unique EcoRI site between one of the loxP sitesand the lacZ gene. Complementary oligonucleotides containing theloxP-derived palindromes with the core derived from the ψlox h7q21, amarker enzyme site, and EcoRI half-sites at the ends were annealed andligated into the unique EcoRI site of pLGWTLox² to generate the pDh7q21donor plasmid for the transient integration assay.

To perform the assay, 50 ng of the tetracycline-resistant recipientplasmid and 1 μg of the ampicillin-resistant donor plasmid wereco-transfected into human 293 cells with Lipofectamine along with 2 μgof the Cre expression vector pBS185-Kan. The transfected cells weretreated with DNaseI 24 hours after transfection. After 72 hours in humancells, plasmid DNA was purified by Hirt extraction (Hirt, J. Mo. Biol.26:365-369, 1967) and returned to the DH10B strain of E. coli fordetection of integration events. Plasmids that underwent integrationwere tetracycline resistant and now also carried lacZ (FIG. 3, lowerleft). They thus gave rise to blue colonies when plated on LB mediumcontaining tetracycline and X-gal and incubated overnight at 37° C.Plasmid DNA was purified from blue colonies, and those plasmids with therestriction pattern expected for integration were classified asintegrants. Each blue colony was restreaked on LB plates containingX-gal and either ampicillin and methicillin, or tetracycline. Onerepresentative plasmid was sequenced in the relevant regions to documentintegration at lox sites. The integration frequency was calculated asthe number of integrants divided by the total number oftetracycline-resistant colonies.

The integration assay was performed with recipients bearing the ψloxh7q21 site or controls having either the wild-type loxP site or no loxsite, along with the corresponding donors. The integration frequency atthe wild-type loxP site was 0.41%. Integration at the ψlox h7q21 sitewas readily detectable and occurred at a frequency of 0.12%. Experimentsperformed with either the recipient alone or the donor alone in thepresence or absence of the Cre expression plasmid did not yield anyintegrants. Transfection of the recipient and the donor in the absenceof the Cre expression plasmid also failed to yield any integrants. Theseresults demonstrate that detectable site-specific integration occurs ata pseudo-lox site in the human cell environment.

A second type of shuttle vector system that can be used to modelchromosomal integration utilizes modified autonomously replicatingvectors such as those described in issued U.S. Pat. No. 5,707,830. Thesetypes of vectors replicate stably in human cells and have a very lowendogenous mutation frequency (DuBridge, et al, Mol. Cell. Biol.7:379-387, 1987). Thus, they provide better models for the chromosomethan newly transfected plasmid DNA. One preferred shuttle vector mayhave EBNA-1 sequences, the EBV family of repeats, oriP or a humanchromosomal ori, a bacterial origin of replication, and a pseudo-loxsequence and a marker gene such as one conferring hygromycin resistance.This vector is established in mammalian cells using antibioticselection. The cells are transfected with a plasmid expressing Cre and aplasmid having a lox recombination sequence and a second marker gene,such as a gene for chloramphenicol resistance. The assay is performed asdescribed above.

Example 4 In vitro Chromosomal Assay for Integration Efficiency

The following example evaluates the efficiency at which a heterologousnucleic acid sequence can be inserted into a chromosome at a particularpseudo-recombination site (integration efficiency) and the level ofexpression of a gene sequence inserted therein.

Bicistronic assay vectors are constructed containing, for example, agene coding for hygromycin resistance under the control of the thymidinekinase promoter and a gene encoding the enzyme chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) under the control of the cytomegalovirus immediateearly promoter (Wohlgemuth, et al, Gene Therapy 3:503-512, 1996). Theformer marker is used primarily to assess integration frequency whilethe latter marker is useful for sensitively assaying the level andduration of gene expression. The vector additionally carries a loxsequence containing the core of the pseudo-loxP sequence underevaluation.

The test plasmid is transfected into mammalian cells, such as 293S cells(human) or NIH3T3 cells (mouse), along with a Cre-expressing plasmid,such as one of those described above. The transfected cells are grown inthe presence of hygromycin and the number of hygromycin resistantcolonies scored as a measure of integration frequency. A number ofantibiotic resistant colonies are propagated and analyzed by polymerasechain reaction (PCR) and Southern blotting to determine whether theyhave an integration event targeted to the correct ψlox site. CAT geneexpression is measured as follows. Cell extracts are prepared bystandard procedures and total protein of the extract is normalized fortotal protein concentration and assayed for CAT activity as described byGorman, et al, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 79:6777, 1982 or Wohlgemuth,supra.

Example 5 In vivo Assay for Integration

The following assay evaluates the ability of a recombination sequence topromote integration of a heterologous nucleic acid sequence into agenome in vivo.

The in vivo integration and expression of the CAT gene by employing theteaching of the invention is evaluated essentially as described by Zhu,et al, Science 261:209-211, 1993. Vectors, one containing a loxrecombination sequence and CAT gene and one expressing Cre, are mixedwith liposomes that have a net cationic charge, for example, containingN[1-(2,3-dioleyloxyl) propyl]-N,N,N-trimethylammonium chloride (DOTMA)(Felgner, et al, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84:7413, 1987) and dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) in a 1:1 ratio. The ratio of DNA toliposomes is typically 1:1. The liposome/DNA mixture is typicallyinjected into test mice in 200 μl of 5% dextrose in water intravenouslythrough the tail vein.

At various time points, starting at 24 hours post-injection, test miceare sacrificed and various tissues harvested and homogenized. Clearedhomogenates are assayed for CAT enzyme activity using a scintillationcounting assay (Seed and Sheen, Gene 67:271-277, 1988) with thefollowing modifications: 0.3 μCi of ¹⁴C-labeled chloramphenicol (55mCi/mmol) is added to 200 nmol of acetyl coenzyme A for a final volumeof 122 μl. CAT activity is expressed as either CAT enzyme/weight oftissue or as a function of milligrams of protein in each tissue extract.Tissue extracts are prepared by standard procedures and total proteindetermined using standard protocols (Bradford, Lowrie, and the like).

Example 6 Intramolecular Integration Assay for a Site-SpecificRecombinase in E. coli

The following example describes a rapid assay to measure site-specificintegration by a recombinase. This assay was used to measure integrationof the wild-type type φC31 attB sequence into the wild-type φC31 attPsequence in the presence of the φC31 integrase. A similar assay can beused measure integration mediated by other recombinases of interest,such as the integrases of phages R4 and TP-901.

Integrase-expressing plasmids were constructed as follows. The φC31integrase gene was amplified by the polverase chain reaction from theplasmid pIJ8600 containing the φC31 integrase and attP (M. Bibb, JohnInnes Institute, Norwich, U.K.) with the following primers:5′GAACTAGTCGTAGGGTCGCCGACATGACAC3′ (SEQ ID NO: 6) and5′GTGGATCCGGGTGTCTCGCTACGCCGCTAC3′ (SEQ ID NO: 7). The PCR product wasligated into linear pCR2.1 (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) at the Toverhang to make the plasmid pTA-Int. The lacZ gene was removed frompCMVSPORTβGal (Life Technologies, Grand Island, N.Y.) by digestion withthe restriction enzymes BamHI and SpeI, and replaced by the integrasegene from pTA-Int with BamHI and SpeI compatible ends, creating theplasmid, pCMVInt (FIG. 4B) , which expresses φC31 integrase in mammaliancells under control of the cytomegalovirus immediate early promoter.

The integrase gene was subsequently removed from pCMVSPORTInt bydigestion with BamHI and PstI and ligated into pACYC 177 resistancesampicillin and kanamycin) (S. Cohen, Stanford University, Stanford,Calif.) that had also been treated with BamHI and PstI, removing part ofthe ampicillin resistance gene. Finally, the lacZ promoter was removedfrom pBCSK+ (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.) by digestion with Sad andSapI. The integrase-containing pACYC plasmid was digested with PstI andSacI, and the lacZ promoter was inserted upstream of the integrase genewith a linker (5 GCTCGGCCA-AAAAGGCCTGCA3′ (SEQ ID NO: 8),5′GGCCTTTTTGGCCG3′ (SEQ ID NO: 9)), creating the plasmid, pInt (FIG.4A), expressing the φC31 integrase under control of the lacZ promoter.

The intramolecular integration assay plasmid was constructed as follows.The bacterial attachment site for φC31 (attB) was amplified by PCR fromStreptomyces lividans genomic DNA (S. Cohen, Stanford University,Stanford, Calif.) with the primers: 5′CAGGTACCGTCGACGATGTAGGTCACGGTC3′(SEQ ID NO: 10) and 5′GTCGACATGCCCGCCGTGACCG3′ (SEQ ID NO: 11). ThisattB fragment was ligated into linear pCR2.1 at the T overhang sites tocreate the plasmid pTA-attB containing a 285 by attB region. The phageattachment site (attP) was amplified by PCR from pIJ8600 with theprimers 5′CGACTAGTACTGACGGACACACCGAA3′ (SEQ ID NO: 12),5′GTACTAGTCGCGCTCGCGCGACTGACG3′ (SEQ ID NO: 13) and ligated into linearpCR2.1 at the T overhang sites to create the plasmid pTA-attP,containing a 221 by attP region. The lacZa was removed from pBCSK+ bydigestion with PvuI and KpnI, treatment with T4 polymerase, andreligation. The full length lacZ gene from pCMVSPORTBGa1 was removed bydigestion with SpeI and HindIII and cloned into the SpeI and HindIIIsites of the lacZa deficient pBCSK+ to make pBCβGal. The attP was thenremoved from pTA-attP by SpeI digestion and cloned into the SpeI site ofpBCβGal. The attB was then removed from pTA-attB by SalI digestion andcloned into the SalI site of the attP containing pBCβGal, to create theassay plasmid pBCPB+ (FIG. 4C), in which the TTG cores of the att sitesare in the same orientation. In addition, a control plasmid, pBCPB−, inwhich the att sites were in opposite orientations, was also constructed.

The pInt plasmid was then transformed into DH10B bacteria, grown underkanamycin selection, and made electrocompetent by a standard protocol.The resulting electrocompetent DHInt cells were used in the bacterialintramolecular integration assay, conducted as follows. 200 ng of theassay plasmid of choice was electroporated into DHInt cells, allowed torecover for one hour, spread on plates containing chloramphenicol andXgal, and grown at 37° C. If an intramolecular integration event occurs,the lacZ gene located between the attB and attP sites will be excised,and a resulting colony will be white. The frequency of intramolecularintegration was therefore calculated as the number of white coloniesdivided by the total number of colonies.

When this assay was carried out in DHInt bacteria using pBCPB+, allcolonies were white, indicating efficient integration. Thousands ofcolonies were assayed for each plasmid tested. The same plasmid producedonly blue colonies in DH10B bacteria, in the absence of the integrasegene. These results verify that the assay plasmid carried functionalattB and attP sites and that the φC31 integrase functioned efficientlyin E. coli with no added co-factors. In contrast, the plasmid pBCPB−,which carried the att sites in inverted orientation, resulted in bluecolonies, because the lacZ gene was merely inverted, not excised, by theintegration reaction. The assay plasmid with no att sites, pECSK-βgal,also yielded only blue colonies in DHInt cells. Restriction enzymedigestion of plasmid DNA purified from a representative number of whitecolonies verified that the intramolecular integration reaction occurredas expected and resulted in deletion of lacZ between the attB and attPsites.

Example 7 Intramolecular Integration Assay in Mammalian Cells

The following example demonstrates the ability of phage φC31 integraseto integrate sequences site-specifically and efficiently in a mammaliancell environment.

To perform the intramolecular integration assay in human cells, the samepBCBP+ plasmid was used as in the bacterial assay of Example 6. ThepCMVInt plasmid was substituted for pInt to ensure expression of φC31integrase in mammalian cells. Subconfluent (60-80%) 60 mm plates ofhuman 293 cells grown in DMEM supplemented with 9% fetal bovine serumand 1% penicillin/streptomycin were transfected with lipofectamine (LifeTechnologies) at a ratio of 6 μg lipofectamine per μg of DNA.Experiments were performed with 100 ng of the assay plasmid of interestand 2 μg of pCMVInt. Controls performed in each experiment included noDNA, pCMVInt only, pSCSK-βgal (assay plasmid with no att sites),pBCSK-βgal+pCMVInt, and pBCPβ+ alone.

Twenty-four hours after transfection, the medium was supplemented with50 Units/ml of DNaseI to reduce the background of untransfected DNA.Three days after transfection, the cells were harvested and lowmolecular weight DNA was recovered by using the Hirt procedure (Hirt, J.Mo. Biol. 26:365-369, 1967). A portion of this DNA was electroporatedinto competent DH10B E. coli cells and spread on plates containingchloramphenicol and Xgal to select only for the assay plasmid. Theintramolecular integration frequency was determined to be the number ofwhite colonies divided by the total number of colonies.

Using this assay system in mammalian cells, the φC31 integrase was shownto catalyze recombination between the full-length attB and attP sites ofpBCBP+ at a frequency of 50.6% (mean of 16 experiments, standarderror=2.32%). This frequency is likely to be an underestimate as plasmidDNA that never came in contact with the φC31 integrase was probablypresent, despite efforts to remove untransfected DNA with DNaseI. It isclear that the φC31 integrase catalyzes efficient site-specificintegration in mammalian cells.

To verify site-specific recombination, 96 white colonies were picked andplasmid DNA was prepared and examined by restriction digestion. Ofthese, 97% contained a plasmid that represented the expectedsite-specific recombinant. The remaining colonies contained plasmidsthat carried large rearrangements that disrupted lacz. The low frequencyrearrangement of transfected plasmids was observed with all plasmids,with and without integrase and att sites, and can be attributed totransfection-associated mutation of newly introduced DNA.

Example 8 Determination of the Minimal Sizes of Recombination Sequences

The following example describes the process for determining the minimalsequences needed for recognition and recombination by a site-specificrecombinase. This process was used to determine the minimal wild-typeattB and attP sequences functionally recognized by the φC31 integrase inbacterial and mammalian cell environments. A similar process can be usedto identify the minimal sequences recognized by other recombinases ofinterest, such as the integrases of phages R4 and TP-901. The minimalattB and attP sequences can then be used to identifypseudo-recombination sequences, for example as described above for theCre-lox system.

Prior to this study, the minimal sizes for the φC31 attachment sites,attB and attP, had not been determined. The attB site had been localizedto approximately 280 basepairs and the attP region had been localized to86 basepairs (Thorpe and Smith, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1998). Theintramolecular integration assay described in Example 6 was used todetermine the minimal functional sizes for these att sites. Shortdouble-stranded adaptor molecules containing att sites of variouslengths were created by annealing single-stranded oligonucleotides.These shorter sites were used to replace the full-length att sites inthe pBCPB+assay plasmid, and recombination efficiencies were determinedby electroporation into E. coli.

To determine the minimal function size of attB, the 278-basepairfull-length attB surrounded by BamHI and HindIII sites was removed. Thisfragment was replaced by the series of synthetic shorter sites havingends permitting their orientation-appropriate cloning into pBCBP+. Theresulting plasmids were electroporated into DHInt E. coli a cells andrecombinants were scored as white colonies, as described in Example 6above. FIG. 5 (left side) shows the results of these experiments. AttBsites of 50, 40, 35, and 34 basepairs all provided full recombinationfunction, i.e. they functioned at 100% of the efficiency of thefull-length attB. Reduction of the site to 33 basepairs produced amarked decrease in recombination activity. Therefore, 34 basepairs wasdetermined to be the minimal function size of attB.

Once attB was determined to be 34 basepairs long, attP was subjected toa similar set of reductions. The reduced attP sites were assayed on aplasmid carrying attB34 rather than full-length attB. To perform theseexperiments, the full-length attP surrounded by SacII and SpeI sites wasreplaced with a series of synthetic annealed oligonucleotides bearingends permitting their correct orientation-specific cloning intopBCPB+-attB34. FIG. 5 (right side) depicts the results of theseexperiments. The function of attP dropped off as its size was reducedfrom 40 to 36 basepairs. The DNA sequence revealed that the 38 basepairsite encompassed the major inverted repeat evident in attP. However, itwas apparent from this data that the next two outermost basepairsconveyed some function (P39A&B). From this analysis, the minimal size ofattP was determined to be 39 basepairs.

To determine the frequency at which the reduced att sites function inmammalian cells, the same panel of plasmids was analyzed by using theintramolecular integration assay described in Example 7. Each of theassay plasmids was transfected into human 293 cells along with pCMVInt.After 72 hours in the mammalian cells, the plasmid DNA was purified bythe method of Hirt (Hirt, J. Mo. Biol. 26:365-369, 1967) and transformedinto DH10B E. coli cells for scoring of recombinants. The results ofthese experiments showed that minimal sizes for attB and attP similar tothose determined in E. coli also applied in mammalian cells.Approximately 60-90% of the efficiency of the full-length att sites wasachieved with the same reduced att sequences that worked at 100%efficiency in E. coli, likely because the overall reaction is somewhatless efficient in the mammalian cell environment.

These experiments to determine the minimal sizes of attB and attPprovided the information that these recombination sites had sizes of 34and 39 basepairs, respectively. These sizes are similar to that of the34-basepair loxP site. A recombination site of this size will possessactive pseudo recombination sites in large genomes, such as those ofmammals and most plants. Thus, it is statistically expected that thepseudo recombination sites for the φC31 integrase will occur in thesegenomes. These pseudo recombination sites represent targets forchromosome engineering.

Example 9 Determination of the Amount of Heterogeneity Tolerated in theCore Sequence of a Recombinase Site

The amount of heterogeneity tolerated in the 3-bp core sequence of theattB and attP sequences recognized by the φC31 integrase was determined.Similar methods can be used to determine the amount of coreheterogeneity tolerated in the cores of other recombinases of interest,such as the integrases of phages R4 and TP-901.

The φC31 integrase catalyzes recombination between attB and attP sites.These sites have minimal functional lengths of 34 and 39 basepairs,respectively. While largely distinct in sequence, attB and attP share athree basepair common core sequence, TTG, that includes the crossoverregion. In the case of the 8-basepair core region of the loxP sitetargeted by Cre recombinase, it has been found that its sequence islargely unimportant, as long as it matches between the two recombiningsites. To determine if this behavior applied to the core region of theattB and attP sites of the φC31 integrase, the effects of mutationswithin this core region were examined.

A panel of plasmids was generated in which either attB, attP, or bothsites were altered with a specific single base change. These changeswere then assayed with the intramolecular integration assay in E. colidescribed in Example 6. A recombination event results in excision of thelacZ gene located between the att sites. Thus, when an assay plasmid istransformed into bacteria expressing φC31 integrase, a site-specificrecombination event is scored as a white colony.

The TTG core was mutated in each position individually to all other basepossibilities. The effects of these mutations in attB were investigatedwhen paired with a wild-type attP. Conversely, the effects of a mutantattP paired with a wild-type attB were measured. By combining attB andattP sites that contained identical mutations, it was determined whetherthe core region needed to only match to be effective in recombination.

To carry out these experiments, oligonucleotides bearing the mutationsto be tested were synthesized in the context of attB34 or attP40 (seeExample 8). The mutant oligonucleotides were annealed and cloned intothe chloramphenicol-resistant intramolecular integration assay vectorpBCBP+ to replace the wild-type attB or attP, as in Example 8.Individual plasmids containing the mutation of interest were assayed forrecombination in E. coli strain DHInt, which carries thekanamycin-resistant integrase expression plasmid pint, described inExample 6. Assay plasmid DNA (2 ng) was electroporated into DHInt, andafter a 1 hour recovery period at 37° C. in rich media, thetransformations were plated on LB agar containing 25 mg/mlchloramphenicol, 60 mg/ml kanamycin, and 50 mg/ml X-gal. The plates wereincubated overnight (16-18 hours) at 37° C., after which blue and whitecolonies were counted. The recombination fraction was expressed as thepercentage of white colonies out of total colonies. The results of theseexperiments are shown in FIG. 6.

The first and third positions of the core showed some flexibility, whilethe center position did not. The first position appeared to tolerateonly pyrimidines; the CTG double mutant worked well. The third positionof attP could be changed to any base, and to the other purine for attB.Overall, the pattern of base substitutions tolerated in the recognitionsites for the φC31 integrase more closely resembled the degree oftolerance for substitutions typical of the outer palindromes, ratherthan the core, of the loxP site. Thus, unlike the situation in theCre-loxP system, the φC31 integrase has strong base preferences withinthe cores of its attB and attP recombination sites, and merely matchingany two three-basepair core sequences will not suffice to generateefficient recombination in this system.

Example 10 Bimolecular Integration Assay Into a Model Chromosome inMammalian Cells

The following example demonstrates the ability of phage φC31 integraseto integrate sequences site-specifically and efficiently into a modelchromosome in a mammalian cell environment.

Example 7 demonstrated that the φC31 integrase efficiently catalyzedsite-specific intramolecular integration in mammalian cells. The nextstep was to show that the integrase could catalyze efficientsite-specific integration of exogenous DNA into mammalian chromosomes incell culture. EBV-based plasmids provide easy and useful models forchromosomes. EBV vectors exist in the nucleus, replicate in synchronywith the chromosomes, and bear chromatin indistinguishable from that ofthe chromosomes. They can be easily purified from cells and transformedinto E. coli for rapid scoring of integration events. Thus they havegreat utility in characterization of the integration reaction in humancells.

In these experiments, a kanamycin-resistant EBV plasmid was equippedwith an attB site and established in human 293 cells to create a stableattB-containing human cell line. An ampicillin-resistant plasmidcarrying attP and lacz was then co-transfected into the attB cell line,along with a plasmid expressing the φC31 integrase. To assay forintegration products, after three days plasmid DNA was extracted andtransformed into bacteria. Blue colonies that grew on plates containingkanamycin, ampicillin, and Xgal were scored integrants, while totalcolony number could be obtained by plating on kanamycin alone.

The attB and attP plasmids needed for this study were constructed asfollows. The target EBV based plasmids were based on p220.2 (DuBridge etall 1987). The control plasmid p220K was made by inserting the kanamycinresistance gene from the Kan-resistant Genblock (Amersham Pharmacia,Piscataway, N.J.) into the XmnI site of the ampicillin resistance geneof p220.2. To make attB-containing p220 plasmids, the ampicillinresistance gene of p220.2 was removed by digestion with BspHI. Thekanamycin resistance gene described above was isolated by digestion withPstI, and cloned into amp-220.2 with BspHI-PstI linkers(5′CATGAGGCCWGGCCTGCA3′ (SEQ ID NO: 14) and 5′GGCCTTTTTGGCCT3′ (SEQ IDNO: 15)) to create the plasmid p220K. The full length attB was removedfrom the plasmid pTA-attB (Example 6) by SalI digestion and cloned intothe SalI site of p220K, creating the plasmid p220KattBfull (FIG. 4D).The 35 base pair attB was cloned into the SalI and BamHI sites of p220Kby using the oligonucleotides,5′gatccgatatcgcgcccggggagcccaagggcacgccctggcaccg3′ (SEQ ID NO: 16) and5′tcgacggtgccagggcgtgcccttgggctccccgggcgcgatatcg3′ (SEQ ID NO: 17),creating the plasmid p220KattB35.

These EBV plasmids, p220K, p220KattBfull, and p220KattB35, wereestablished in human 293 cells as follows. 293 cells were grown in DMEMcontaining 9% fetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin/streptomycin to −70%confluency in a 100 mm plates. 8 μg of p220KattBfull, p220KattB35, orthe control p220K were introduced by transfection with lipofectamineaccording to the manufacturer's protocol. At 24 hours post-transfection,the cells were split 1:4, and at 48 hours post-transfection hygromycinselection (350 μg/ml) was begun. 11 to 14 days after starting selectionthe cells were expanded and frozen down.

The attP-containing plasmid pTSAD (FIG. 4E) was constructed as follows.A multiple cloning site (oligos:5′AATTACCGCGGGGCGCGCCGTTTAAACGCATGCCAATTGGGCCGGCCG3′ (SEQ ID NO: 18) and5′AATTCGGCCGGCCCAATTGGCATGCGTTTAAACGGCGCGCCCCGCGGT3′ (SEQ ID NO: 19))was cloned into the EcoRI site of the plasmid pWTLox² (Example.2)upstream of lacZ, regenerating one EcoR1 site. The attP site was removedfrom the plasmid pTAattP (Example 6) by digestion with EcoRI and clonedinto the regenerated EcoRI site of pWTLox² to create the plasmid pES 1.The lacZ promoter was removed from pBCSK+ by digestion with PvuII andSacII and cloned into pES1 which had been digested with PmeI and SacII.The region containing attP, the lacZ promoter, and the lacZ gene wasremoved by digestion with BamHI and BglII and cloned into the BamHI siteof pTSA30 (Gregory Phillips, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa) tocreate the donor plasmid pTSAD. pTSA30 and its pTSAD derivative aretemperature sensitive for plasmid replication in E.coli.

To perform the integration assay, EBV plasmid-containing cells weregrown to confluency in DMEM containing 9% fetal bovine serum, 1%penicillin/streptomycin, and 200 μg/ml hygromycin in 10 cm plates. Theseplates were split into eight 60 mm plates and grown in the above mediumwithout hygromycin for 24-48 hours, until they were approximately 60-80%confluent. pCMVInt (Example 7, FIG. 4B) and pTSAD were transfected inequimolar amounts (10 μg total DNA) using 50 μl Superfect (Qiagen,Valencia, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's protocol. As controls,no DNA, 4 μg pCMVInt, or 6 μg pTSAD were cotransfected with salmon spermDNA (to 10 μg). In addition, an equimolar amount of a plasmid encodingthe green fluorescent protein (a derivative of pEGFP-cl, Clonetech, PaloAlto, Calif.) with salmon sperm DNA to 10 μg was transfected in parallelinto the EBV plasmid-containing cells to monitor transfectionefficiency.

2.5-3 hours after transfection, the Superfect was removed from the cellsand replaced with serum-containing medium. Cells were fed with mediumcontaining serum and 50 U/ml 24 hours after transfection and harvested72 hours after transfection. Low molecular weight DNA was purified byHirt extraction (Hirt, J. Mo. Biol. 26:365-369, 1967) and transformedinto DH102 E. coli by electroporation. Also, 24 hours aftertransfection, transfection efficiency was measured by counting the greenfluorescent protein-expressing cells relative to the total number ofcells. The transfection efficiencies typically ranged from 6-18%.Because untransfected cells would have no opportunity to undergointegration but would still contribute EBV plasmids to the bacterialassay in the form of white colonies, the transfection efficiency wasneeded to obtain the correct the integration frequency.

In a typical experiment, 15 μl of a transformation was spread on each ofthree plates containing kanamycin, Xgal, and IPTG, while 150 μl of thesame transformation was spread on each of three plates containingampicillin, kanamycin, Xgal, and IPTG. The bacteria were grown overnightat 42° C. for approximately 16 h. The elevated temperature preventedreplication of pTSAD, which has a temperature-sensitive plasmid originof replication. Integrants were scored as the blue colonies on theplates containing both kanamycin and ampicillin. Integration frequencywas calculated as the number of blue colonies on kanamycin andampicillin plates divided by the total number of colonies on kanamycinplates X 10 for each set of transfections. Raw numbers for integrationfrequency were divided by transfection efficiency to obtain accuratevalues for integration frequency.

FIG. 7 lists the integration frequencies obtained with each of the EBVplasmids and the negative controls. Each line of the figure represents aminimum of three separate transfections. For p220K, which lacks the attBsite, a negligible frequency of blue colonies was detected. Uponanalysis, these plasmids were not integrants, but rather homologousrecombination events that occurred through common amp sequences on thetwo plasmids. For p220KattB35, carrying a minimally sized attB, asignificant number of blue colonies were detected. When corrected forthe transfection efficiency in these experiments, the integrationfrequency was 1.7%. For p220KattBfull, the integration frequency waseven higher, at 7.5%. This increase presumably reflects a favorablesequence context for the full attB site compared to the reduced site.Controls in which pCMVInt, pTSAD, and each of the EBV plasmids, p220K,p220KattBfull, and p220KattB35 were co-transformed directly into E. coliyielded negligible numbers of blue colonies (0.002% or less). Thesecontrols confirmed that the high frequency integration events scoredabove occurred in human cells, not in E. coli.

The integration frequency into an attB site located on an EBV plasmid isimpressively high and several orders of magnitude higher than thefrequencies of random integration or homologous recombination,highlighting the utility of this invention. Furthermore, the integrantsare site-specific, as indicated by restriction mapping of more than 160of the blue colonies from the experiments with p220KattB35 andp220KattBfull. In addition, two integrants each, from the experimentswith p220Katt35 and p220Kattfull, were analyzed at the DNA sequencelevel across the junctions of the integration site, confirming thatexact site-specific integration occurred between attB and attP. FIG. 7indicates that, as expected, the reaction requires the presence of boththe integrase gene (pCMVInt) and the attP target site (pTSAD). BecauseEBV vectors are nuclear, chromatinized mini-chromosomes, the highintegration frequency obtained in this system is predictive of theexpected integration frequencies into att sites located on thechromosomes.

Example 11 Assay for Integration Into the Chromosomes of Mammalian Cells

The following example describes methods used to demonstrate the abilityof phage φC31 integrase to site-specifically integrate sequences intomammalian chromosomes.

Cell lines carrying the wild-type φC31 attB site are prepared bytransfecting human 293 cells with Lipofectamine and a plasmid carryingthe attB sequence and the hygromycin resistance gene. The cells aregrown in DMEM containing hygromycin and resistant colonies propagated tomass culture. Integration of the attB sequence is verified by Southernblot analysis using plasmid sequences as probes. These cell lines arethen transfected with Lipofectamine and a plasmid containing the attPsequence and a neomycin/G418 resistance gene and a plasmid expressingthe φC31 integrase gene under control of the CMV promoter. The G418antibiotic is added to the DMEM growth medium approximately 48 hoursafter transfection. Selection is maintained for approximately ten days,after which the number of colonies is scored.

Higher numbers of neomycin resistant colonies are seen in cellsco-transfected with the φC31 integrase-expressing plasmid than in cellsthat do not receive the integrase. Likewise, higher numbers ofneomycin-resistant colonies are obtained in cells lines carrying attBcompared to the parent 293 cell line lacking attB. These results suggestthat the φC31 integrase enzyme can catalyze the integration ofheterologous sequences into a mammalian genome, both at an integratedattB sequence and at endogenous pseudo-recombination sequences.

Similar experiments can be conducted using cell lines carrying anintegrated attP hygromycin-resistant plasmid, followed by transfectionwith a neomycin-resistant attB plasmid, to demonstrate integration intothe integrated wild-type attP and attP pseudo-sites. Furthermore,similar experiments can be conducted in other cell types, such as thosederived from other mammalian species or from plants, to test integrationactivity in these cellular backgrounds.

While the foregoing has been with reference to particular embodiments ofthe invention, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art thatchanges in these embodiments may be made without departing from theprinciples and spirit of the invention, the scope of which is defined bythe appended claims.

1. A method of integrating a nucleic acid into a genome of a fibroblastcell in vitro, comprising: introducing into said fibroblast cell invitro (i) an expression cassette comprising a polynucleotide encoding aφC31 phage recombinase; and (ii) a targeting vector comprising a nucleicacid and a single φC31 vector attachment site; and maintaining said cellunder conditions sufficient for said targeting vector to integrate intoan endogenous target site of said genome by a recombination eventmediated by said φC31 phage recombinase.
 2. The method according toclaim 1, wherein said fibroblast cell is derived from a human subject.3. The method according to claim 1, wherein said nucleic acid comprisesa eukaryotic coding sequence.
 4. The method according to claim 3,wherein said coding sequence encodes a polypeptide.
 5. The methodaccording to claim 3, wherein said coding sequence encodes an RNAmolecule.
 6. The method according to claim 3, wherein said codingsequence is present in an expression cassette.
 7. A method comprising:introducing into a genome of a fibroblast cell in vitro (i) anexpression cassette comprising a polynucleotide encoding a φC31 phagerecombinase; and (ii) a targeting vector comprising a nucleic acid and asingle φC31 vector attachment site; maintaining said cell underconditions sufficient for said targeting vector to integrate into anendogenous target site of said genome by a recombination event mediatedby said φC31 phage recombinase; and locally administering said cell to ahuman subject following integration of said nucleic acid into saidgenome of said cell.
 8. The method according to claim 1, wherein saidvector attachment site is a bacterial genomic recombination site (attB),a phage genomic recombination site (attP), a pseudo bacterial genomicrecombination site (pseudo-attB), or a pseudo phage genomicrecombination site (pseudo-attP).